The initial warning of the kingdom's division, and the reason for it, came during Solomons reign.
Although he had forbidden Solomon to follow other gods, Solomon did not keep the Lord's command. So the Lord said to Solomon, "Since this is your attitude and you have not kept my covenant and my decrees, which I commanded you, I will most certainly tear the kingdom away from you and give it to one of your subordinates. Nevertheless, for the sake of David your father, I will not do it during your lifetime. I will tear it out of the hand of your son. (1 Kings 11: 10-12)
God then revealed to Jeroboam, through the prophet Ahijah, that he would rule over ten of Israel's twelve tribes, leaving only Judah and Benjamin under the rule of Solomon's son, Rehoboam (1 Kings 11:29-39).
Somehow Solomon suspected Jeroboam (who was one of his officials) and tried to kill him, "but Jeroboam fled to Egypt, to Shishak the king, and stayed there unitil Solomon's death" (1 Kings 11:40). The division became reality upon Solomon's death, when Rehoboam ascended to the throne and Jeroboam returned from Egypt. The northern tribes, discontented with Solomon's heavy taxation and forced labour policies, petitioned Rehoboam for relief. Rather than heeding the advice of his father's experienced counselors to ease their burden, Rehoboam listened to the counsel of his younger advisors, responding harshly and increasing their labour.
This decision ignited rebellion among the northern tribes, who crowned Jeroboam as their king, leading to the formal division of the kingdom. This decision ignited rebellion among the northern tribes, who crowned Jeroboam as their king, leading to the formal division of the kingdom. Rehoboam mustered his army intending to suppress the revolt,
High Place of Sacrifice, Jebel al-Madbah, Petra, Jordan.
but he and his army heeded the warning of the prophet Shemaiah, who warned him that the division was God's will (1 Kings 12:1-24). (Civil war did erupt between the two kingdoms on occasion, but at other times they cooperated, even went to war together; all depending on the kings in power.)
God's evaluation of kings asked one question: did they follow God? And from this point onwards, there were two "templates: The kings of the Northern kingdom were compared to Jeroboam, whether they continued in his idolatry (most did), or not. The kings of Judah were judged by comparison to David, whether they followed the ways of their father David and obeyed the Lord, or not. And of special importance was their attitude towards "high places", outdoor shrines of worship mostly associated with idolatry (click the button following to learn more about "high places").
XWHAT WERE THE "HIGH PLACES"
In the history of Israel we often read about the "high places", but what were these?
Your first thought might be something like scenic overlooks or mountaintop retreats. But in the Bible and in ancient history, "high places" were something very different – and far more spiritually significant.
"High places" were locations – often on hills, but not always – where people went to worship. These could range from simple stone altars to more elaborate setups that included altars, carved pillars, sacred trees or poles (often called Asherah poles), and sometimes small sanctuaries or shrines. They were outdoor sites and could be found scattered throughout the land.
Originally, high places weren't necessarily a problem. Before Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem, worshiping God at high places was fairly normal. In fact, the prophet Samuel offered sacrifices at high places (1 Samuel 9:12-14), and Solomon himself went to the high place at Gibeon to offer sacrifices before the temple was finished (1 Kings 3:3-4).
But once Solomon's temple was built, that temple became the central place God had chosen for worship (Deuteronomy 12:5-14), and offering sacrifices elsewhere started to be seen as disobedience. Even when people were worshiping Yahweh at the high places, it wasn't considered proper anymore.
Over time, the situation got worse. Many high places became associated with idol worship and Canaanite deities like Baal and Asherah. The people started mixing pagan rituals with the worship of God, or abandoning God entirely for other gods. These sites sometimes involved shocking practices like child sacrifice (2 Kings 16:3; 2 Kings 23:10; Jeremiah 7:31), temple prostitution, and fertility rites. That's why high places became such a major issue in Israelite religion.
Throughout the books of Kings and Chronicles, the high places become a kind of spiritual litmus test for Israel's and Judah's kings. Righteous kings like Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:3-4) and Josiah (2 Kings 23:8-20) are praised for tearing down the high places and purging idol worship. But other kings – even ones who followed God in some ways – are criticized for not removing them. For example, King Asa "did what was right in the eyes of the LORD... but the high places were not removed" (1 Kings 15:11, 14).
So, in a nutshell, high places were outdoor religious centers where sacrifices and rituals were performed. At first, they weren't seen as wrong, but after the temple in Jerusalem was built, God's people were expected to worship there only. Over time, high places came to symbolize idolatry, syncretism, and disobedience to God's commands.
"High places" are a powerful example of how worship practices can shift over time – and how even something that starts with good intentions can go off track if it drifts from the boundaries God sets.
In general, both kingdoms went through repeated cycles of idolatry, rebellion, foreign domination, and eventual exile. Judah had a number of Godly kings who tried to reform their people, but idolatry was so deeply entrenched that God eventually had both kingdoms go into exile, from which only Judah returned.
Once established as king of Israel, Jeroboam faced a political and religious dilemma: the temple in Jerusalem remained the spiritual center of Israelite worship, and Jeroboam feared that if his people continued to journey there, they might return their loyalty to Rehoboam. To prevent this, he implemented a radical religious reform, introducing alternative worship centers at Bethel and Dan. He erected golden calves and
X1 Kings 12:28-30 (NET)
After the king [= Jeroboam] had consulted with his advisers, he made two golden calves. Then he said to the people, "It is too much trouble for you to go up to Jerusalem. Look, Israel, here are your gods who brought you up from the land of Egypt". 29 He put one in Bethel and the other in Dan. 30 This caused Israel to sin; the people went to Bethel and Dan to worship the calves.
them to be the gods who had brought Israel out of Egypt, echoing the sin of the Israelites at Mount Sinai. He also established a non-Levitical priesthood and new religious festivals, distancing his kingdom from the worship prescribed in the Mosaic Law (1 Kings 12: 25-33). This idolatry incorporated all the gods of the nations around them, eventually leading to divine judgment and exile.
One of Jeroboam's Golden Calves (artist reconstruction)
The history of the kings of Israel reads almost like a Hollywood script. In general they were evil, and it showed in their actions.
Jeroboam's son Nadab ruled briefly before being assasinated by Baasha, who promptly wiped out all descendants of Jeroboam. Baasha's son Elah ruled for two years before Zimri, one of his officials, assasinated him, and killed off Baasha's whole family. When the army heard about this, they proclaim Omri, the commander of the army, as king, and laid siege Zimri' capital. Zimri committed suicide by setting his palace on fire.
Omri became one of Israel's most successful kings, formed many alliances, and had his son Ahab marry the Phoenician princess Jezebel to strengthen the Phoenician alliance. Under Jezebel's influence Ahab firmly established idolatry in Israel by introducing Baal worship. He was opposed by the prophet Elijah, especially on Mount Carmel, strengthened his army, and built cities and an ivory palace. Ahab's son Ahaziah and his brother Joram quickly followed, before an army officer named Jehu killed Joram, overthrew the house of Ahab, and executed Jezebel.
Jehu tried to reform Israel by destroying Baal worship in Israel, but did not remove Jeroboam's golden calves. As a result, his son Jehoahaz continued with evil, "following the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat" (2 Kings 13:2); a sad, recurring refrain regarding Israel's kings, as in the case of his son Jehoash, Then came his son Jeroboam (II), who restored Israel's borders to its greatest extent since the reign of Solomon, but continued in idolatry.
The last thirty-one years of Israel's history saw six kings and four assasinations before Hoshea, the last king, attempted to rebel against Assyria. Shalmaneser V marched against Israel and laid siege to Samaria, which was completed by Sargon II - who took all the credit for himself. He
XSARGON II INSCRIPTION RE ISRAEL's CAPTIVITY
"I besieged and conquered Samaria and led away as booty 27,290 inhabitants of it. I formed from among them a contingent of 50 chariots and made those remaining assume their (present) statuses."
– Khorsabad Annals, The Annals of Sargon II, c. 722 BC, from cojs.org.
the Israelites to Assyria, from where they never
XTITLE
CONTENT
.
ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE FALL OF SAMARIA
SOURCE
EVIDENCE
RELEVANCE
Annals of Sargon II
Fall of Samaria, 27,290 deported
Matches 2 Kings 17
Nimrud Prism
Shalmaneser V's campaigns in Israel
Confirms broader context
Archaeology
Destruction layers
Physical confirmation
Babylonian Chronicle
Csampaigns of Shalmaneser V
Aligns with Biblical timeline
The Bible supplies one all-embracing reason for the eventual destruction of Israel:
All this took place because the Israelites had sinned against the LORD their God, who had brought them up out of Egypt from under the power of Pharaoh king of Egypt. They worshiped other gods
8 and followed the practices of the nations the LORD had driven out before them... (
,
X2 KINGS 17:7-23 (NET)
This happened because the Israelites sinned against the Lord their God, who brought them up from the land of Egypt and freed them from the power of Pharaoh king of Egypt. They worshiped other gods; 8 they observed the practices of the nations whom the Lord had driven out from before them, and followed the example of the kings of Israel. 9 The Israelites said things about the Lord their God that were not right. They built high places in all their towns, from watchtower to fortified city. 10 They set up sacred pillars and Asherah poles on every high hill and under every green tree. 11 They burned incense on all the high places just like the nations whom the Lord had driven away before them did. Their evil practices made the Lord angry. 12 They worshiped the disgusting idols in blatant disregard of the Lord's command.
13 The Lord solemnly warned Israel and Judah through all his prophets and all the seers, "Turn back from your evil ways; obey my commandments and rules that are recorded in the law. I ordered your ancestors to keep this law and sent my servants the prophets to remind you of its demands". 14 But they did not pay attention and were as stubborn as their ancestors, who had not trusted the Lord their God. 15 They rejected his rules, the covenant he had made with their ancestors, and the laws he had commanded them to obey. They paid allegiance to worthless idols, and so became worthless to the Lord. They copied the practices of the surrounding nations in blatant disregard of the Lord's command. 16 They abandoned all the commandments of the Lord their God; they made two metal calves and an Asherah pole, bowed down to all the stars in the sky, and worshiped Baal. 17 They passed their sons and daughters through the fire, and practiced divination and omen reading. They committed themselves to doing evil in the sight of the Lord and made him angry.
18 So the Lord was furious with Israel and rejected them; only the tribe of Judah was left. 19 Judah also failed to keep the commandments of the Lord their God; they followed Israel's example. 20 So the Lord rejected all of Israel's descendants; he humiliated them and handed them over to robbers, until he had thrown them from his presence. 21 He tore Israel away from David's dynasty, and Jeroboam son of Nebat became their king. Jeroboam drove Israel away from the Lord and encouraged them to commit a serious sin. 22 The Israelites followed in the sinful ways of Jeroboam and did not repudiate them. 23 Finally the Lord rejected Israel just as he had warned he would do through all his servants the prophets. Israel was deported from its land to Assyria and remains there to this very day.
shortened.)
Again and again God called Israel back to Himself through a number of prophets - Elijah, Elisha, Amos, Hosea - "but they would not listen and were as stiff-necked as their ancestors" (2 Kings 17:14).
X
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY: ISRAEL (Northern Kingdom)
KING
DATE (approximate)
ACHIEVEMENTS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS
REFERENCE
Jeroboam I
931 - 910 BC
Rebelled against Solomon's son Rehoboam, leading to the division of the kingdom.
Established new centers of worship at Bethel and Dan, using golden calves to discourage people from worshiping in Jerusalem.
Secured alliances and strengthened the newly formed Northern Kingdom.
His idolatrous practices became a lasting sin for Israel.
1 Kings 12-14
Nadab
910 - 909 Bc
Son of Jeroboam, ruled briefly.
Assassinated by Baasha.
1 Kings 15:25-31.
Baasha
909 - 886 BC
Usurped the throne, wiped out Jeroboam's dynasty.
Continued idolatry.
1 Kings 15:32-16:7
Elah
886 - 885 BC
Son of Baasha, ruled briefly.
Assassinated by Zimri.
1 Kings 16:8-14
Zimri
885 BC
Reigned for only seven days.
Died by suicide after Omri's coup.
1 Kings 16:15-20
Omri
885 - 874 BC
Founded Samaria, making it the capital of the Northern Kingdom.
Strengthened Israel's international reputation and formed alliances, including one with Phoenicia through Ahab's marriage to Jezebel.
Known for his military strength and consolidation of power.
His dynasty marked a turning point in Israel's history, though it also deepened idolatry.
1 Kings 16:21-28.
Ahab
874 - 853 BC
Married Jezebel, introducing widespread Baal worship.
Opposed by Elijah the prophet, especially during the confrontation on Mount Carmel.
Strengthened Israel's army and expanded its borders.
Built an ivory palace and fortified cities.
1 Kings 16-22
Ahaziah
853 - 852 BC
Son of Ahab and Jezebel.
Continued Baal worship; injured in an accident and died without an heir.
1 Kings 22:51-2 Kings 1:18
Joram (Jehoram)
852 - 841 BC
Brother of Ahaziah.
Allied with Judah; opposed Moab.
Killed by Jehu.
2 Kings 3:1-9:26
Jehu
841 - 814 BC
Overthrew the house of Ahab and executed Jezebel.
Destroyed Baal worship in Israel but failed to remove Jeroboam's golden calves.
Strengthened Israel militarily but faced challenges from Aram (Syria).
2 Kings 9-10
Jehoahaz
814 - 798 BC
Faced oppression by Aram.
Turned to God, who provided relief.
2 Kings 13:1-9
Jehoash (Joash)
798 - 793 BC
Continued wars with Aram.
Met Elisha on his deathbed.
2 Kings 13:10-25
Jeroboam II
793 - 753 BC
Restored Israel's borders to their greatest extent since Solomon's reign.
Brought economic prosperity to Israel, though moral and spiritual decline persisted.
His reign was marked by growing inequality and idolatry, as warned by prophets like Amos and Hosea.
2 Kings 14
Zechariah
753 - 752 BC
Last king of Jehu's dynasty.
Assassinated by Shallum.
2 Kings 15:8-12
Shallum
752 BC
Reigned one month.
Assassinated by Menahem.
2 Kings 15:13-15
Menahem
752 - 742 BC
Brutally suppressed opposition.
Paid tribute to Assyria.
2 Kings 15:16-22
Pekahiah
742 - 740 BC
Son of Menahem.
Assassinated by Pekah.
2 Kings 15:23-26
Pekah
740 - 732 BC
Opposed Assyria but lost much territory.
Assassinated by Hoshea.
2 Kings 15:27-31
Hoshea
732 - 722 BC
Last king of Israel, during which Assyria invaded and conquered Samaria.
Attempted to rebel against Assyria by allying with Egypt, leading to Israel's destruction and exile.
Rehoboam's decision to follow the advice of his young advisors, rather than his father David's seasoned advisors, ignited rebellion among the northern tribes, who crowned Jeroboam as their king, leading to the formal division of the kingdom. Rehoboam decided to restore his rule over all Israel and mustered his army, but this time he listened to unpopular advice from the prophet Shemaiah, who warned him that the division was God's will
X1 KINGS 12:21-24 (NET)
21 When Rehoboam arrived in Jerusalem, he summoned 180,000 skilled warriors from all Judah and the tribe of Benjamin to attack Israel and restore the kingdom to Rehoboam son of Solomon. 22 But God told Shemaiah the prophet, 23 "Say this to King Rehoboam son of Solomon of Judah, and to all Judah and Benjamin, as well as the rest of the people, 24 'This is what the Lord has said: "Do not attack and make war with your brothers, the Israelites. Each of you go home. Indeed this thing has happened because of me"'". So they obeyed the Lord's message. They went home in keeping with the Lord's message.
.
However, he strengthened his defences against Israel and allowed idolatry to flourish, a practise continued by his son Abijah.
Unlike his father and grandfather, Abijah's son Asa initiated widespread religious reform. Faced with a massive Ethiopian invasion, Asa turned to God for help, and routed the invading army. Upon his return to Jerusalem the prophet
...Azariah son of Oded...said to him, "Listen to me, Asa and all Judah and Benjamin. The Lord is with you when you are with him. If you seek him, he will be found by you, but if you forsake him, he will forsake you.... But as for you, be strong and do not give up, for your work will be rewarded". (
X2 CHRONICLES 15:1-7 (NET)
1 God's Spirit came upon Azariah son of Oded. 2 He met Asa and told him, "Listen to me, Asa and all Judah and Benjamin! The Lord is with you when you are loyal to him. If you seek him, he will respond to you, but if you reject him, he will reject you. 3 For a long time Israel had not sought the one true God, or a priest to instruct them, or the law. 4 Because of their distress, they turned back to the Lord God of Israel. They sought him, and he responded to them. 5 In those days no one could travel safely, for total chaos had overtaken all the people of the surrounding lands. 6 One nation was crushed by another, and one city by another, for God caused them to be in great turmoil. 7 But as for you, be strong and don't get discouraged, for your work will be rewarded".
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Greatly encouraged, "he removed the detestable idols from the whole land of Judah and Benjamin and from the towns he had captured in the hills of Ephraim", repaired the Lord's altar, and summoned his people to Jerusalem, where "they entered into a covenant to seek the Lord, the God of their ancestors, with all their heart and soul" (
X2 CHRONICLES 14:8-19 (NET)
When Asa heard these words and the prophecy of Oded the prophet, he was encouraged. He removed the detestable idols from the entire land of Judah and Benjamin and from the cities he had seized in the Ephraimite hill country. He repaired the altar of the Lord in front of the porch of the Lord's temple.
9 He assembled all Judah and Benjamin, as well as the settlers from Ephraim, Manasseh, and Simeon who had come to live with them. Many people from Israel had come there to live when they saw that the Lord his God was with him. 10 They assembled in Jerusalem in the third month of the fifteenth year of Asa's reign. 11 At that time they sacrificed to the Lord some of the plunder they had brought back, including 700 head of cattle and 7,000 sheep. 12 They solemnly agreed to seek the Lord God of their ancestors with their whole heart and being. 13 Anyone who would not seek the Lord God of Israel would be executed, whether they were young or old, male or female. 14 They swore their allegiance to the Lord, shouting their approval loudly and sounding trumpets and horns. 15 All Judah was happy about the oath because they made the vow with their whole heart. They willingly sought the Lord and he responded to them. He made them secure on every side.
16 King Asa also removed Maacah his grandmother from her position as queen mother because she had made a loathsome Asherah pole. Asa cut down her loathsome pole and crushed and burned it in the Kidron Valley.
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Sadly, although his "heart was fully committed to the Lord all his life", Asa did not remove the high places from Israel.
His son Jehoshaphat continued his religious reforms, sending officials to teach the law throughout Judah. He also strengthened his alliance with Israel, and won a miraculous victory through prayer and worship. But he also did not remove the idolatrous high places, and the people still had not fully set their hearts following on the God.
And so, after 63 years of religious reform, Judah quickly returned to their wicked ways, led by Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram who married Ahab's daughter Athaliah, and introduced Baal worship in Judah. "He passed away, to no one's regret (!), and was buried in the City of David, but not in the tombs of the kings" (2 Chronicles 21:20, emphasis added). His son Ahaziah succeeded him for a year, before being killed by Jehu in his purge of the house of Ahab in Israel.
And then Judah too turned into a Hollywood movie....
When Athaliah the mother of Ahaziah saw that her son was dead, she proceeded to destroy the whole royal family of the house of Judah. But Jehosheba, the daughter of King Jehoram, took Joash son of Ahaziah and stole him away from among the royal princes who were about to be murdered and put him and his nurse in a bedroom. Because Jehosheba, the daughter of King Jehoram and wife of the priest Jehoiada, was Ahaziah's sister, she hid the child from Athaliah so she could not kill him. He remained hidden with them at the temple of God for six years while Athaliah ruled the land. In the seventh year Jehoiada showed his strength. (2 Chronicles 22:10-23:1).
Biblica Open Color Bible Maps (TM), English. Copyright 2019 by Biblica, Inc.
With the assistance of the army he engineered a coup, proclaimed Joash as king, and had Athaliah killed.
Jehoiada then made a covenant that he, the people and the king would be the Lord's people. All the people went to the temple of Baal and tore it down. They smashed the altars and idols and killed Mattan the priest of Baal in front of the altars. (2 Chronicles 23:16-17)
Joash repaired the temple in Jerusalem, and while Jehoiada was alive he promoted true worship and discouraged idolatry.But after the priest's death, Joash turned away from God and allowed idolatry to flourish, even ordering the stoning of Jehoiada's son for rebuking the king. In his later years he became so unpopular that his own servants assasinated him.
His son Amaziah continued in idolatry, before he too was killed after a series of unpopular decisions and military defeats.
Uzziah (Azariah) followed his father, and some sanity returned to the kingdom of Judah. He sought the Lord under the guidance of Zechariah, and prospered. He expanded Judah's territory, strengthened defences by fortifying Jerusalem, developed agriculture and fostered trade and invested in infrastructure. But his successes went to his head and he attempted to burn incense in the temple, a role reserved for priests. As a result God struch him with leprosy, and he spent his last years in isolation.
Due to his leprosy his son Jotham ruled as co-regent during his later years (approximately 8 years). Jotham continued in faithfulness to the Lord, and was followed by his son Ahaz, a wicked king who introduced pagan practices and aligned Judah with Assyria.
His son Hezekiah instituted sweeping religious reforms. He removed the high places, destroyed idols, restored proper worship in the temple and re-established the celebration of Passover. He rebelled against Assyria, and strenthened Judah's defences, including the construction of the Siloam tunnel to ensure Jerusalem's water supply. Sennacherib of Assyria marched against Judah, but after Hezekiah prayed for deliverance God miraculously delivered them. He contracted a terminal disease, but after prayer God granted him 15 additional years of life.
His son Manasseh followed, a wicked king who introduced extreme idolatry – yet he repented and turned to God late in his life. That had no effect on his son Amon, who continued idolatry, before being killed by palace servants after a reign of only two years.
The conspirators placed his son Josiah on the throne, and he began seeking the Lord in his youth. At age 20 he initiated a national religious revival and purge of idolatry. He repaired and restored the temple, initiating a nenewed focus on worship. Remarkably, during restoration the Book of the Law (likely Deuteronomy) was discovered in the Temple. Josiah was deeply moved by its contents. He made a covenant before the Lord, pledging to follow His commands and urging the people to do the same, and re-instituted the celebration of the Passover.
Despite warnings, Josiah confronted Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt, who was traveling through Judah to aid Assyria, leading to Josiah's death in battle at Megiddo.
Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle
Josiah's son Johoahaz followed him but was quickly deposed by Pharoah Neco II, who placed his brother Jehoiakim (originally named Eliakim) on the throne. After Babylon defeated Egypt, Judah became a vassal of Babylon, but after three years Jehoiakim rebelled, leading to Babylonian attacks. He was known for oppressive policies, and even burned a scroll with the prophet Jeremiah's prophetic warnings.
His son Jehoiachin became king as Babylon was besieging Jerusalem, and surrendered to Babylon to save the city. This led to the first major deportation of 10,000 of Judah's elite to Babylon, including Jehoiachin and his family and officials, leaving only the poorest people behind.
Jehoiachin's uncle Zedekiah was installed as a puppet king, and allowed corruption and injustice to flourish. He initially pledged loyalty to Nebuchadnezzar, but later rebelled, hoping for assistance from Egypt (despite warnings from Jeremiah not to rely on Egypt). This led to Nebuchadnezzar returning in force, and after a long siege, Jerusalem fell in 586 BC. The temple was destroyed, the city burned, and the remaining population was either slaughtered or exiled to Babylon. Zedekiah was captured trying to flee, and after witnessing the execution of his sons, he was blinded and taken to Babylon in chains.
Nebuchadnezzar appointed Gedaliah to be over the people he had left behind in Judah. In the seventh month, however, Ishmael son of Nethaniah, who was of royal blood, came with ten men and assassinated Gedaliah and also the men of Judah and the Babylonians who were with him at Mizpah. At this, all the people from the least to the greatest, together with the army officers, fled to Egypt for fear of the Babylonians".
X2 KINGS 25:11-26 (NET)
On the seventh day of the fifth month, in the nineteenth year of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, Nebuzaradan, the captain of the royal guard, who served the king of Babylon, arrived in Jerusalem. 9 He burned down the Lord's temple, the royal palace, and all the houses in Jerusalem, including every large house. 10 The whole Babylonian army that came with the captain of the royal guard tore down the walls that surrounded Jerusalem. 11 Nebuzaradan, the captain of the royal guard, deported the rest of the people who were left in the city, those who had deserted to the king of Babylon, and the rest of the craftsmen. 12 But he left behind some of the poor of the land and gave them fields and vineyards.
13 The Babylonians broke the two bronze pillars in the Lord's temple, as well as the movable stands and the big bronze basin called "The Sea". They took the bronze to Babylon. 14 They also took the pots, shovels, trimming shears, pans, and all the bronze utensils used by the priests. 15 The captain of the royal guard took the golden and silver censers and basins. 16 The bronze of the items that King Solomon made for the Lord's temple – including the two pillars, the big bronze basin called "The Sea", the twelve bronze bulls under "The Sea", and the movable stands – was too heavy to be weighed. 17 Each of the pillars was about 27 feet high. The bronze top of one pillar was about 4½ feet high and had bronze latticework and pomegranate-shaped ornaments all around it. The second pillar with its latticework was like it.
18 The captain of the royal guard took Seraiah, the chief priest, and Zephaniah, the priest who was second in rank, and the three doorkeepers. 19 From the city he took a eunuch who was in charge of the soldiers, five of the king's advisers who were discovered in the city, an official army secretary who drafted citizens for military service, and 60 citizens from the people of the land who were discovered in the city. 20 Nebuzaradan, captain of the royal guard, took them and brought them to the king of Babylon at Riblah. 21 The king of Babylon ordered them to be executed at Riblah in the territory of Hamath. So Judah was deported from its land.
22 Now King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon appointed Gedaliah son of Ahikam, son of Shaphan, as governor over the people whom he allowed to remain in the land of Judah. 23 All the officers of the Judahite army and their troops heard that the king of Babylon had appointed Gedaliah to govern. So they came to Gedaliah at Mizpah. The officers who came were Ishmael son of Nethaniah, Johanan son of Kareah, Seraiah son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite, and Jaazaniah son of the Maacathite. 24 Gedaliah took an oath so as to give them and their troops some assurance of safety. He said, "You don't need to be afraid to submit to the Babylonian officials. Settle down in the land and submit to the king of Babylon. Then things will go well for you". 25 But in the seventh month Ishmael son of Nethaniah, son of Elishama, who was a member of the royal family, came with 10 of his men and murdered Gedaliah, as well as the Judeans and Babylonians who were with him at Mizpah. 26 Then all the people, from the youngest to the oldest, as well as the army officers, left for Egypt, because they were afraid of what the Babylonians might do.
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Defiant and rebellious to the very end!
And so the Southern Kingdom of Judah ceased to exist.
To top
But once again, we are also given the reason for the destruction of Jerusalem:
The Lord, the God of their ancestors, sent word to them through his messengers again and again, because he had pity on his people and on his dwelling place. 16 But they mocked God's messengers, despised his words and scoffed at his prophets until the wrath of the Lord was aroused against his people and there was no remedy. 17 He brought up against them the king of the Babylonians...God gave them all into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar...
X2 CHRONICLES 36:15-21 (NET)
15 The Lord God of their ancestors continually warned them through his messengers, for he felt compassion for his people and his dwelling place. 16 But they mocked God's messengers, despised his warnings, and ridiculed his prophets. Finally the Lord got very angry at his people and there was no one who could prevent his judgment. 17 He brought against them the king of the Babylonians, who slaughtered their young men in their temple. He did not spare young men or women, or even the old and aging. God handed everyone over to him.
18 He carried away to Babylon all the items in God's temple, whether large or small, as well as what was in the treasuries of the Lord's temple and in the treasuries of the king and his officials. 19 They burned down God's temple and tore down the wall of Jerusalem. They burned all its fortified buildings and destroyed all its valuable items. 20 He deported to Babylon all who escaped the sword. They served him and his sons until the Persian kingdom rose to power. 21 This took place to fulfill the Lord's message spoken through Jeremiah and lasted until the land experienced its sabbatical years. All the time of its desolation the land rested in order to fulfill the seventy years.
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ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE FALL OF JERUSALEM
SOURCE
EVIDENCE
RELEVANCE
Babylonian Chronicle Tablet
Describes the events from 605-594 BC, first 11 years of Nebuchanezzar
Confirms the existence of Nebuchadnezzar, his conquest of Judea and Jerusalem, and his appointment of Zedekiah as king of Judah.
Excavations at Mount Zion and other sites in Jerusalem
Have uncovered thick layers of ash and debris, consistent with a large-scale fire and destruction event from the early 6th century BCE
Confirms destruction and burning of Jerusalem
Arrowheads
Numerous bronze and iron Scythian-type arrowheads, typical of Babylonian military equipment from this period, have been found within these destruction layers
Confirms Babylonian presence during destruction
Burnt structures
Archaeologists have identified remains of large public buildings and residential structures with burned wooden beams, charred pottery, and stone debris, all dating to around 586 BCE
Confirms burning of Jerusalem
But all was not lost, The LORD, the God of Israel, keeps his promises. He promised Abraham that all nations will be blessed through Him, and he promised David that there will always be one of his descendants carrying on his dynasty, even if they were not physically on the throne.
And so, even as the kingdom was falling, God made a promise through the prophet Jeremiah:
10 This is what the Lord says: "When seventy years are completed for Babylon, I will come to you and fulfill my good promise to bring you back to this place. 11 For I know the plans I have for you", declares the Lord, "plans to prosper you and not to harm you, plans to give you hope and a future. 12 Then you will call on me and come and pray to me, and I will listen to you. 13 You will seek me and find me when you seek me with all your heart. 14 I will be found by you", declares the Lord, "and will bring you back from captivity."
XJEREMIAH 29:1-14 (NET)
The prophet Jeremiah sent a letter to the exiles Nebuchadnezzar had carried off from Jerusalem to Babylon. It was addressed to the elders who were left among the exiles, to the priests, to the prophets, and to all the other people who were exiled in Babylon. 2 He sent it after King Jeconiah, the queen mother, the palace officials, the leaders of Judah and Jerusalem, the craftsmen, and the metal workers had been exiled from Jerusalem. 3 He sent it with Elasah son of Shaphan and Gemariah son of Hilkiah. King Zedekiah of Judah had sent these men to Babylon to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. The letter said:
4 "The Lord of Heaven's Armies, the God of Israel, says to all those he sent into exile to Babylon from Jerusalem, 5 'Build houses and settle down. Plant gardens and eat what they produce. 6 Marry and have sons and daughters. Find wives for your sons and allow your daughters to get married so that they too can have sons and daughters. Grow in number; do not dwindle away. 7 Work to see that the city where I sent you as exiles enjoys peace and prosperity. Pray to the Lord for it. For as it prospers you will prosper'.
8 "For the Lord of Heaven's Armies, the God of Israel, says, 'Do not let the prophets among you or those who claim to be able to predict the future by divination deceive you. And do not pay any attention to the dreams that you are encouraging them to dream. 9 They are prophesying lies to you and claiming my authority to do so. But I did not send them. I, the Lord, affirm it!'
10 "For the Lord says, 'Only when the seventy years of Babylonian rule are over will I again take up consideration for you. Then I will fulfill my gracious promise to you and restore you to your homeland. 11 For I know what I have planned for you', says the Lord. 'I have plans to prosper you, not to harm you. I have plans to give you a future filled with hope. 12 When you call out to me and come to me in prayer, I will hear your prayers. 13 When you seek me in prayer and worship, you will find me available to you. If you seek me with all your heart and soul, 14 I will make myself available to you', says the Lord. 'Then I will reverse your plight and will regather you from all the nations and all the places where I have exiled you', says the Lord. 'I will bring you back to the place from which I exiled you'."
, edited)
X
THE DIVIDED MONARCHY: JUDAH (Southern Kingdom)
KING
DATE (approximate)
ACHIEVEMENTS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS
REFERENCE
Rehoboam
931 - 913 BC
His harsh policies caused the kingdom to split, lost 10 tribes to Jeroboam.
Fortified cities in Judah to strengthen defenses against Israel.
Allowed idolatry to flourish during his reign.
1 Kings 12-14; 2 Chronicles 10-12
Abijah
913 - 911 BC
Won a key battle against Jeroboam).
Continued idolatry.
1 Kings 15:1-8; 2 Chronicles 13
Asa
911 - 870 BC
Religious reformer who removed idols and restored worship of Yahweh.
Faced challenges from Israel.
Strengthened Judah's defenses by building fortified cities.
Trusted in God for victory over a massive Ethiopian invasion.
1 Kings 15:9-24; 2 Chronicles 14-16
Jehoshaphat
870 - 849 BC
Promoted religious reforms and sent officials to teach the law throughout Judah.
Strengthened alliances with Israel through marriage and military cooperation.
Won a miraculous victory against a coalition of enemies through worship and prayer.
1 Kings 22; 2 Chronicles 17-20
Jehoram
849 - 841 BC
Married Ahab's daughter, Athaliah.
Introduced Baal worship.
2 Kings 8:16-24; 2 Chronicles 21.
Ahaziah
841 BC
Brief reign. Allied with Israel against Aram.
2 Kings 8:25-29. 2 Chronicles 22:1-9
Athaliah
841 - 835 BC
Queen who seized the throne after her son's death.
Promoted Baal worship.
Overthrown in a coup led by Jehoiada the priest.
2 Kings 11; 2 Chronicles 22:10-23:21
Joash
835 - 796 BC
Undertook significant repairs to the Temple in Jerusalem, organizing a system to collect offerings for the work.
Early in his reign, Joash was mentored by the high priest Jehoiada, who influenced him to follow the ways of the Lord.
Initially promoted the worship of Yahweh and discouraged idolatry while under Jehoiada's guidance, but after Jehoiada's death, Joash turned away from God and allowed idolatry to flourish.
Faced attacks from the Arameans, leading to the loss of significant treasures from the Temple.
Ordered the stoning of Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, for rebuking the king and the people for their unfaithfulness to God.
Assassinated by his servants in a conspiracy due to his unpopularity in his later years
2 Kings 11:1-12:21; 2 Chronicles 22:10-24:27
Amaziah
769 -767 BC
Military success against Edom but introduced idols.
After a series of unpopular decisions and military defeats, a conspiracy arose against him in Jerusalem. He fled to Lachish, but the conspirators pursued him there and killed him.(
2 Kings 14:1-20; 2 Chronicles 25.
Uzziah (Azariah)
767 - 740 BC
Expanded Judah's territory by defeating the Philistines, Arabs, and Meunites.
Strengthened Judah's defenses by fortifying Jerusalem with towers and advanced weaponry, including war machines for shooting arrows and hurling stones, and built and equipped a powerful, well-trained army.
Developed agriculture and dug wells, showing a strong focus on the land's productivity.
Fostered trade and infrastructure, leading to a period of wealth and stability.
Sought the Lord under the guidance of Zechariah, and as long as he sought God, he prospered.
Became prideful due to his success and attempted to burn incense in the Temple, a role reserved only for priests. God struck him with leprosy for his arrogance, and he lived in isolation for the rest of his life. He was buried in a field near the royal tombs because of his leprosy, signaling his dishonor despite his earlier achievements.
Due to his leprosy, his son Jotham ruled as co-regent during his later years.
2 Kings 15:1-7; 2 Chronicles 26
Jotham
750 - 732 BC
Built infrastructure and maintained faithfulness to God.
2 Kings 15:32-38; 2 Chronicles 27
Ahaz
732 - 716 BC
Wicked king who introduced pagan practices.
Aligned with Assyria.
2 Kings 16, 2 Chronicles 28
Hezekiah
715 - 686 BC
Instituted sweeping religious reforms: removed high places, destroyed idols, and broke the bronze serpent (Nehushtan) that had become an object of idolatry.
Restored proper worship in the Temple and re-established the celebration of the Passover, inviting the remnant of Israel to join.
Revived the Levitical priesthood and restructured temple service.
Rebelled against Assyria, refusing to pay tribute.
Strengthened Judah's defenses by fortifying Jerusalem and preparing for an Assyrian invasion, including securing water supply through the construction of the Siloam Tunnel.
Miraculously delivered from Assyria when God struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers under Sennacherib's command after Hezekiah prayed for deliverance.
When afflicted with a terminal illness, he prayed to God, who granted him 15 additional years of life.
Welcomed envoys from Babylon and showed them Judah's wealth and treasures, a move that Isaiah rebuked as a sign of Judah's eventual downfall.
"He trusted in the Lord, the God of Israel. There was no one like him among all the kings of Judah" (2 Kings 18:5-6).
2 Kings 18-20; 2 Chronicles 29-32
Manasseh
686 - 642 BC
Wicked king who introduced extreme idolatry.
Repented late in life.
2 Kings 21:1-18; 2 Chronicles 33:1-20
Amon
642 - 640 BC
Amon followed the idolatrous practices of his father, Manasseh, and was known for abandoning the worship of Yahweh.
Amon ruled for only two years before being killed by palace servants in his own house. The conspirators were killed by the people of the land, who then placed Amon's son, Josiah, on the throne.
2 Kings 21:19-26; 2 Chronicles 33:21-25
Josiah
940 - 609 BC
Began seeking the Lord in his youth and initiated a national religious revival at age 20, purging Judah and Israel of idolatry, high places, Asherah poles, and Baal worship.
Repaired and restored the Temple in Jerusalem, initiating a renewed focus on proper worship.
During the Temple restoration, the Book of the Law (likely Deuteronomy) was discovered. Josiah was deeply moved by its contents, leading to personal repentance and national reforms. He made a covenant before the Lord, pledging to follow His commands and urging the people to do the same.
Destroyed pagan altars, including the destruction of the altar at Bethel, fulfilling a prophecy from 1 Kings 13:2.
Reinstituted the celebration of the Passover, which had not been properly observed for centuries, making it a monumental event in Judah's history.
Rejected Assyrian influence and aimed to restore Judah's autonomy.
Despite warnings, Josiah confronted Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt, who was traveling through Judah to aid Assyria. This led to Josiah's death in battle at Megiddo.
2 Kings 22-23; 2 Chronicles 34-35
Jehoahaz
609 BC
Deposed by Egypt.
2 Kings 23:31-35; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4
Jehoiakim
609 - 598 BC
Originally named Eliakim, he was placed on the throne by Pharaoh Necho II after deposing his brother Jehoahaz. His name was changed to Jehoiakim as a sign of subservience to Egypt.
Imposed heavy taxes on the people to pay tribute to Egypt.
After Babylon defeated Egypt at the Battle of Carchemish (605 BC), Judah became a vassal state to Babylon. Jehoiakim served King Nebuchadnezzar for three years before rebelling. This rebellion provoked Babylonian attacks and incursions by other neighboring nations.
Known for oppressive policies and shedding innocent blood, earning the condemnation of the prophet Jeremiah.
Rejected and burned a scroll containing Jeremiah's prophetic warnings, symbolizing his disdain for God's word (Jeremiah 36:20-24).
2 Kings 23:36-24:7, 2 Chronicles 36:5-8
Jehoiachin
598-597 BC
Became king as Babylon besieged Jerusalem due to his father Jehoiakim's rebellion. Faced overwhelming pressure from Nebuchadnezzar and quickly surrendered to Babylon to save the city.
Taken into captivity along with his family, officials, and 10,000 of Judah's elite, including craftsmen and soldiers, leaving the land impoverished. This was the first major deportation of Jews to Babylon, a key event leading to the Babylonian Exile.
He spent 37 years in Babylonian captivity. Eventually released and given a place of honor at the king's table by Evil-Merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's successor.
2 Kings 24:8-16; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10
Zedekiah
597 - 586 BC
Installed as king by Nebuchadnezzar after the exile of Jehoiachin. Originally named Mattaniah, his name was changed to Zedekiah as a sign of Babylonian authority.
Allowed corruption and injustice to flourish in Judah, further alienating the people from God.
Initially pledged loyalty to Nebuchadnezzar but later rebelled, seeking support from Egypt, despite warnings from the prophet Jeremiah to remain loyal to Babylon (Jeremiah 27:12-22). This rebellion provoked Nebuchadnezzar to lay siege to Jerusalem in 588 BC.
In 586 BCE, after a two-year siege, Jerusalem was breached by Babylonian forces. The city was destroyed, the Temple burned, and the walls torn down, marking the final end of the Kingdom of Judah.
Zedekiah attempted to flee but was captured near Jericho. Forced to witness the execution of his sons before his eyes were gouged out, he was then taken in chains to Babylon, where he died in captivity.
The fall of Jerusalem and the exile to Babylon was a crushing blow, but it was not the end. Even in a foreign land, God had not abandoned His people. He gave them voices like Daniel and Ezekiel to remind them that He was still sovereign.
Daniel was only a youth when he was taken to Babylon, but his steadfastness and courage in the face of pressure showed the exiles that faithfulness was still possible. Ezekiel, a priest among the captives, became a prophet by the River Chebar, painting visions of both judgment and hope. Later, Esther rose to the throne in Persia and, with Mordecai's guidance, saved her people from destruction. Even Baruch, Jeremiah's scribe, continued encouraging the exiles, urging them to cling to God's promises and resist idolatry.
The exile changed Israel deeply. It cured them of idol worship, once and for all. It also shifted their focus to the Scriptures, since the temple lay in ruins and sacrifice was impossible. Scribes began to preserve and interpret the sacred writings, laying the groundwork for what would become the Jewish canon. Out of necessity, synagogues emerged as centers of worship, prayer, and teaching - small gatherings that would remain vital long after the exile ended.
X
THE EXILE IN BABYLON
(Deutero-canonical references in italics)
DATE
EVENT
REFERENCE
586 BC
Fall of Jerusalem, destruction of the Temple
2 Kings 25, Jeremiah 39, Baruch 1:1-9
582 BC
Final deportation, Final deportation, Gedaliah's assassination
When Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, everything changed. He allowed the Jews to return home and rebuild. Led by Zerubbabel and Jeshua, the first exiles returned, rebuilt the altar, and eventually restored the temple in 516 BC.
Cyrus Cylinder, by Prioryman - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19669413
Later groups came back under Ezra, who called the people to renew their devotion to the Law, and Nehemiah, who rebuilt the city walls.
Finally, Malachi closed the Old Testament era with a call for sincerity in worship and a promise that one day, God would send a messenger to prepare the way.
X
THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD
Date
Events
Individuals
539 BC
Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon
538 BC
Edict of Cyrus allows Jes to go home and rebuild the temple
Temple articles returned to Jews (Ezra 1:8)
Ruler: Cyrus the Great
Jewish leader: Sheshbazzar (prince of Judah, Ezra 1:8)
High priest: Joshua (Jeshua) son of Jehozadak (Haggai 1:1).
537-520 BC
First return to Jerusalem
Temple foundation laid (~536 BC), construction stalls due to opposition (Ezra 4)
Ruler: Cyrus the Great (539-530 BC), succeeded by Cambyses II (530-522 BC)
Governor: Zerubbabel; High priest: Joshua
520-518 BC
Prophets Haggai and Zechariah called people to resume building the temple
Ruler: Darius I (522-486 BC)
Governor: Zerubbabel; High priest: Joshua.
Prophets: Haggai Aug-Dec 520 BC (Haggai 1:1, 2:10); Zechariah begins Nov 520 BC (Zech 1:1)
516 BC
Second Temple is completed and dedicated (Ezra 6:15)
(This marks the end of the 70-year exile (586-518 BC))
Ruler: Darius I (522-486 BC)
Governor: Zerubbabel; High priest: Joshua.
Prophets: continued prophetic activity from Zechariah
458 BC
Ezra, a priest and scribe, leads a second group of exiles to Jerusalem
He initiates religious reforms, focused on restoring the Law and proper worship
Ruler: Artaxerxes I Longimanus (465-424 BC)
High Priest: probably Joiakim, son of Joshua (Neh 12:10)
455-433 BC
Nehemiah, cupbearer to Artaxerxes I, is appointed governor of Judah.
Reforms civil and religious life.
Leads the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls (completed in 52 days, Nehemiah 6:15).
Ruler: Artaxerxes I
Leader: Nehemiah; High Priest: Eliashib (Nehemiah 3:1; 13:28)
Prophets: Malachi is likely active during or shortly after Nehemiah's governorship, addressing laxity in temple service and corruption
433 BC
Nehemiah returns to Persia (Nehemiah 13:6) but later comes back to address further issues
435-430 BC
Ministry of Malachi: critiques corrupt priests, lax worship, divorce, and social injustice
Anticipates a future messenger ("Elijah") and the "day of the Lord" (Malachi 3-4).
Ruler:Artaxerxes I
Leader : Nehemiah (returning); High priest: Eliashib
And then, silence. When Malachi laid down his pen, no new prophet arose for centuries. Yet these years were anything but empty. Empires rose and fell, nations clashed, and the Jewish people were refined in ways that prepared the world for the Messiah.
At first, Persia still held sway.
Map of Persian Empire. Courtesy of Biblica® Open Color Bible Maps (TM), English. Copyright ® 2019 by Biblica, Inc. Licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. Available at https://open.bible/maps/
The Jews lived under the watch of the high priest, and the temple in Jerusalem became the spiritual heart of their nation. But as generations passed, the influence of the scribes and teachers grew stronger, since the written Word was now their main source of guidance.
In 332 BC, the world changed. Alexander the Great swept through the Middle East like wildfire, defeating the Persians and establishing Greek rule over Israel. With him came not just new soldiers, but a new culture – Hellenism. Greek language, education, and philosophy began to influence every corner of life.
While many Jews embraced Greek ideas, others resisted fiercely, seeing Hellenism as a threat to their identity and faith. This growing cultural tension would eventually erupt – but not just yet.
After Alexander's early death, his empire was divided among his generals. Israel became the tug-of-war rope between two of those successor kingdoms: the Ptolemies (based in Egypt) and the Seleucids (based in Syria).
The crisis reached its breaking point under Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a Seleucid king who tried to erase Jewish identity. He outlawed the Law, forbade circumcision, and desecrated the temple itself. Out of this oppression rose Mattathias and his sons, the Maccabees. Judah "the Hammer" led a fierce revolt, reclaiming Jerusalem and cleansing the temple in 164 BC, a victory still remembered in the festival of Hanukkah.
Hellenistic successor kingdoms. Simeon Netchev, 30 June 2021. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs
For the first time in centuries, Israel tasted independence under the Hasmonean dynasty. At first it felt like a dream, but corruption soon crept in. Power struggles divided the nation, and new groups emerged with competing visions of faithfulness: Pharisees clung to strict obedience, Sadducees guarded temple power, Essenes withdrew to the wilderness, and Zealots pressed for violent revolt.
The strife eventually invited Rome's intervention. In 63 BC, Pompey marched into Jerusalem, and soon Herod the Great, backed by Rome, ruled Judea. Herod was not David's heir, but with Roman support he built lavishly, even renovating the temple into a wonder of the world. Yet he was ruthless and paranoid, remembered for his cruelty as much as his building projects.
By the dawn of the New Testament, Jewish life revolved around the temple, the synagogue, and the Scriptures. The Law, Prophets, and Writings had been gathered into a recognized canon, and for Jews scattered across the world, the Greek Septuagint made those Scriptures accessible. Synagogues in every city became hubs of worship and teaching. And across the Roman Empire, Jewish communities kept alive the hope of deliverance.
XTHE SEPTUAGINT
in essence the Septuagint (often abbreviated as LXX) was the first major translation of the Jewish Scriptures (the Old Testament in the Christian Bible) into Greek. Its story begins around the 3rd century BC, in Alexandria, Egypt, which at the time had a huge Jewish population.
The Jewish community there mostly spoke Greek, not Hebrew. Over time, fewer people could read the Hebrew Scriptures, so there was a need to make the sacred texts accessible in the language everyone actually used. That's when a translation project began.
According to a somewhat legendary story, the Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus wanted a copy of the Jewish Law for the famous Library of Alexandria. So, he supposedly invited 72 Jewish scholars (hence the name Septuagint, which means "seventy") to do the translation. They were said to have worked independently and miraculously produced identical translations – though that part is more legend than history.
In reality, the translation likely happened in stages, starting with the Torah (the first five books: Genesis through Deuteronomy), and then the rest of the books were translated over the next century or so. The work wasn't all done at once, and different books may reflect slightly different styles or translation philosophies.
What's interesting is that the Septuagint didn't just translate the Hebrew – it sometimes added clarifications or changed wording to make things clearer to a Greek-speaking audience. By the time of Jesus the Septuagint included all the books currently forming the Old Testament, but also some extra books that aren't in the traditional Hebrew Bible but are in many Christian Old Testaments today – books like Wisdom, Sirach, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. These are called the Deuterocanonical books by Catholics and Apocrypha by Protestants.
Over time, the Septuagint became really important for early Christians, because most of them spoke Greek, and the Septuagint was the version of Scripture they used. In fact, many Old Testament quotes in the New Testament come from the Septuagint, not the Hebrew text.
Eventually, Jewish communities began to distance themselves from the Septuagint – partly because of its use by Christians – and they reaffirmed the Hebrew versions of their Scriptures. But the Septuagint continued to be used in the Eastern Orthodox Church to this day.
To Israel this was a dark time: Not a single prophet, not a single word from on high, just a succession of conquerors and repression. Yet, these four centuries were crucial to God's strategy in human history. Though He had not spoken through prophets in four hundred years, He was not absent. He was preparing. The silence was only an illusion - behind it, God was setting the stage for His Son.
Firstly, the Jews were used to hearing God through a prophet (or king) - they had to learn to hear His words from the Scriptures. Secondly, these centuries allowed time for the finalisation of the Old Testament canon (the list of books accepted as the inspired word of God). Thirdly, it provided time for 70 Jewish scholars to translate the Old Testament into Greek, the world language of the day - the so-called Septuagint, completed in 132 BC, which became "the Scriptures" for Jews living all over the then-known world. And Rome's roads and peace would soon carry God's message swiftly to the nations.
When the apostles and early disciples began to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ to all nations, they had "the Scriptures" as an agreed-upon collection of authoritative writings, they had it in a language understandable to most people in the then-known world, and they had a synagogue audience in every city, used to hearing God speak from His Scriptures. They had everything they needed to conquer the world. It took God 400 years to finalise "the fullness of the times" for the coming of His Son. Three hundred years later His followers had reached their entire known world with His message.
X
OVERVIEW OF THE INTERTESTAMENTAL PERIOD
Date(s)
Events
430-332 BC
Jews live under relative peace and religious freedom
The Temple functions under high priestly leadership
Scribes and Torah teachers gain influence as prophecy ceases
Jerusalem remains the center of worship
332 BC
Alexander the Great conquers the Persian Empire, Judah comes under Greek control.
Beginning of Hellenistic influence: Greek language and culture spread.
Jews begin speaking Greek, and Diaspora communities grow (especially in Egypt).
323 BC
Death of Alexander, empire splits
Judah caught between two Greek empires: Ptolemies (Egypt) and Seleucids (Syria)
Mostly under Ptolemaic control initially; religious life continues.
205-200 BC
Septuagint (LXX) Translation: Jewish scholars in Alexandria translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek
Becomes the primary Scriptures of Hellenistic Jews and later the early Church
198 BC
Judea shifts from Egyptian (Ptolemaic) to Syrian (Seleucid) rule: Seleucid King Antiochus III takes control of Judea
At first, Jews are treated favorably.
175-164 BC
Reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (Seleucid king)
Begins aggressive Hellenization.
168 BC
"Abomination of Desolation": Antiochus defiles the Temple, forbids Jewish practices.
Torah banned; Sabbath, circumcision outlawed.
167 BC
Jewish revolt begins under Mattathias and his sons (Maccabees)
164 BC
Judah Maccabee retakes Jerusalem.
Temple cleansed and rededicated (origin of Hanukkah)
Beginning of partial Jewish independence under the Hasmonean dynasty.
142-63 BC
Hasmonean Rule (Priest-Kings): Jewish state ruled by descendants of Mattathias (Hasmoneans)
High priests and kings are now political and religious leaders
Expansion of Jewish territory.
Growing internal conflict:
Rise of Pharisees (law-focused reformers)
Sadducees (elite priestly class)
Essenes (separatists)
Zealots (revolutionaries)
135-63 BC
John Hyrcanus I (Hasmonean ruler), expands Jewish territory by force
Destroys Samaritan Temple at Mount Gerizim
Enforces conversion to Judaism in some areas (e.g., Idumeans)
63 BC
Roman General Pompey conquers Jerusalem, end of Hasmonean independence
Judea becomes a Roman client state
Temple desecrated again (Pompey enters Holy of Holies)
37 BC
Herod (Idumean) the Great made King of Judea by Rome, marries Hasmonean princess to gain legitimacy
Ruthless ruler but master builder - massive expansion of Second Temple begins (~20 BC)
Known for cruelty and paranoia: orders deaths of rivals (including his own sons), later associated with massacre of Bethlehem's infants (Matthew 2).
6-4 BC
Birth of Jesus Christ: conservative dating places Jesus' birth around 5 or 6 BC (before Herod's death).
Wise men seek the "King of the Jews", alarming Herod.
Joseph, Mary, and Jesus flee to Egypt, fulfilling prophecy (Hosea 11:1).
4 BC
Death of Herod the Great
Kingdom divided among his sons:
Herod Archelaus (Judea, Samaria, removed in AD 6)
Herod Antipas (Galilee and Perea, rules until 39 AD)
Herod Philip (northeast regions)
Judea later ruled directly by Roman governors (e.g., Pontius Pilate).
6 AD
Judea becomes Roman province
After Archelaus is removed, Judea is ruled by Roman prefects
Roman census of Quirinius causes unrest (see Acts 5:37)
Pharisees and Zealots become more vocal against Roman rule
6-1 BC
Birth of John the Baptist - son of Zechariah (a priest) and Elizabeth (from Aaron's line)
Miraculous birth foretold by an angel (Luke 1), John Destined to fulfill Malachi's prophecy of "Elijah who is to come"
25-27 AD
Public ministry of John the Baptist begins, he preaches repentance and baptism in the wilderness (Matthew 3)
Declares the coming of the Messiah and the Kingdom of God
Recognizes Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:29)
Baptizes Jesus (Mark 1:9-11)
Later imprisoned and executed by Herod Antipas
Testament history. From the divided kingdoms to the Exile and return, and through the silent years, God was preparing for what Scripture calls "the fulness of time", towards which all history has been building. His faithfulness remains, even though Israel again and again fell away from Him, until the time in Exile changed their very psyche as a people.
When John the Baptist stepped out of the wilderness and pointed to Jesus, the long wait was over. The voice crying in the wilderness had come – and behind him walked the One they had been waiting for all along.
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