LISTS AND TABLES


TEN EARLIEST NON-BIBLICAL WRITTEN REFERENCES TO JESUS

AUTHOR TEXT DATE OF REFERENCE REFERENCE EARLIEST EXTANT MS
Josephus (AD 37–100) Antiquities of the Jews c AD 93-94 A Jewish historian, Josephus mentions Jesus in Antiquities of the Jews, specifically in passages known as the "Testimonium Flavianum". While the authenticity of certain parts is debated, the majority of scholars agree on the existence of a core reference to Jesus. Josephus describes Jesus' crucifixion and refers to Him as a "wise man" and "doer of wonderful works." 11th century AD
Tacitus (AD 56-120) Annals c AD 116 A Roman historian, Tacitus mentions Jesus in "Annals". He states that "Christus," the founder of the Christian movement, was executed by Pontius Pilate during the reign of Emperor Tiberius. This is considered one of the most reliable non-Christian references to Jesus. 11th century AD
Pliny the Younger (AD 61-113) Letter to Emperor Trajan c AD 112 In a letter to Emperor Trajan, written around AD 112, Pliny describes how he dealt with Christians in Bithynia and notes that they worshipped Christ "as a god." 5th century AD
Suetonius (c AD 69-122) The Twelve Caesars c AD 112 Suetonius refers to disturbances in Rome "caused by Chrestus" during the reign of Emperor Claudius (AD 41-54). This "Chrestus" is commonly interpreted as a reference to Christ. 9th century AD
Lucian of Samosata (c AD 125-180) The Death of Peregrinus c AD 165 A satirist, Lucian references Christians and their worship of "the crucified one" (Jesus) in "The Death of Peregrinus", mocking them for their beliefs. 9the century AD
Mara bar Serapion
(1st-3rd century AD)		 Letter, receiver unknown c late 1st-3rd century In a letter to his son, the Stoic philosopher Mara bar Serapion refers refers to the execution of a "wise king" of the Jews, widely believed to be Jesus, though the identification is debated. 6th/7th century AD
Thallus (1st century AD) Unknown c 52 AD In a now-lost work, Thallus reportedly referred to the darkness that followed the crucifixion of Jesus, cited later by Julius Africanus (3rd century AD). The earliest mention of Thallus' reference to Jesus comes from a 9th century manuscript of Africanus' work. 9th century AD
Phlegon of Tralles
(2nd century AD)		 Unknown 2nd century AD (?) A Greek historian, Phlegon is reported by later Christian writers (like Origen) to have mentioned an eclipse and earthquakes during Jesus' crucifixion. The earliest extant references to Phlegon's work are in manuscripts of Origen's writings from the 9th century CE. 9th century AD
Celsus (c 2nd century AD) The True Word c 175 AD A Greek philosopher and critic of Christianity, Celsus wrote The True Word (c 175 AD), which attacks Jesus' divinity and describes him as a magician. The earliest references to Celsus' work are preserved in the 4th-century writings of Origen (Contra Celsum), with manuscripts from the 9th century AD. 9th century AD
Talmud (compiled between 3rd-6th century AD) Babylonian Talmud 3rd-6th century AD Jewish rabbinic texts in the Babylonian Talmud includes references to a figure named "Yeshu," believed by some to be Jesus, though this identification is debated. These references criticize his actions and mention his execution. 6th century AD

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PROPHECIES FULFILLED IN THE LIFE AND DEATH OF JESUS CHRIST

Conservative Bible scholars identify between 300 to 365 Old Testament prophecies that Jesus Christ fulfilled, spanning predictions about his birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection. Here are some key examples with their Old and New Testament references.
(For a detailed list of all fulfilled prophecies, resources such as Hope Faith Prayer and Preaching.com provide comprehensive lists and analysis of specific verses fulfilled throughout His life and mission.)
 
¤ Prophecies Regarding Jesus' Birth
 
Virgin Birth - Isaiah 7:14 (Fulfilled in Matthew 1:22-23)
Born in Bethlehem - Micah 5:2 (Fulfilled in Matthew 2:1)
Lineage from David - Jeremiah 23:5 (Fulfilled in Luke 1:32-33)
 
¤ Prophecies About His Life and Ministry
 
Teaching in Parables - Psalm 78:2 (Fulfilled in Matthew 13:34-35)
Healing the Blind, Deaf, and Lame - Isaiah 35:5-6 (Fulfilled in Matthew 11:5)
A Ministry in Galilee - Isaiah 9:1-2 (Fulfilled in Matthew 4:13-16)
 
¤ Prophecies Related to His Death
 
Betrayed by a Friend - Psalm 41:9 (Fulfilled in John 13:18)
Sold for Thirty Pieces of Silver - Zechariah 11:12-13 (Fulfilled in Matthew 26:14-16)
Silent before His Accusers - Isaiah 53:7 (Fulfilled in Matthew 27:12-14)
Hands and Feet Pierced - Psalm 22:16 (Fulfilled in John 20:25-27)
Casting Lots for His Garments - Psalm 22:18 (Fulfilled in John 19:23-24)
 
¤ Prophecies About His Resurrection
 
Not Abandoned to the Grave - Psalm 16:10 (Fulfilled in Acts 2:31)
Conquering Death - Isaiah 25:8 (Fulfilled in 1 Corinthians 15:54-57)
 
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BASIC OUTLINE OF BIBLICAL HISTORY

DATES
(All dates are approximately)		 PERIOD DESCRIPTION
OLD TESTAMENT
? - 2166 BC Pre-history Creation, Flood, Repopulation of Earth, Babel
2166 - 1805 BC The Patriarchs Abraham to the death of Joseph
1805 - 1406 BC Birth of Israel Slavery in Egypt, Exodus, Law given at Sinai, Wilderness Wanderings, death of Moses,
1406 -1043 BC Beginnings in Canaan Conquest under Joshua, Judges
1043 - 931 BC United Monarchy Saul, David, kingdom divided
931 BC - 722 BC Northern Kingdom (Israel) From kingdom divided to Assyrian captivity, Israel cease to exist
931 BC - 586 BC Southern Kingdom (Judah) Kingdom divided to Babylonian Captivity
586 BC - 537 BC Babylonian captivity of Judah Fall of Jerusalem to the proclamation of Cyrus
537 BC - 430 BC Return and rebuilding Return of the Exiles, renewal of the covenant, rebuilding of Jerusalem and the Temple, upo to the time of Malachi
430 BC - 5 BC Inter-Testamental Period "The Silent Years" with no prophets, political upheavals
NEW TESTAMENT
5 BC - AD 30 Time of Jesus John the Baptist; birth, ministry, death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus
AD 30 - AD 100 Early Church period Pentecost to the death of the apostle John

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APPROXIMATE TIMELINE OF THE PATRIARCHS

SUMMARY TIMELINE OF THE PATRIARCHS
2166 BC 2066 BC 2006 BC 1915 BC 1805 BC
Abraham born Isaac born Jacob & Esau born Joseph born Joseph dies

 
FULL TIMELINE OF THE PATRIARCHS
DATE
(approximate)		 EVENT REFERENCE
2166 BC Birth of Abram Genesis 11:26
2091 BC God calls Abram to leave Haran and promises to make him a great nation. Abram is 75 years old. Gen 12:1-3
2086 BC Abram and Sarai in Egypt due to a famine Gen 12:10-20
2085 BC Abram separates from Lot; God reiterates His promise of land Gen 13
2081 BC Abram rescues Lot and is blessed by Melchizedek Gen 14
2080 BC God makes a covenant with Abram Gen 15
2079 BC Ishmael is born to Abram and Hagar Gen 16
2067 BC God establishes circumcision as a covenant sign; Abram's name is changed to Abraham Gen 17
2066 BC Isaac is born to Abraham and Sarah. Abraham is 100 years old. Gen 21:1-7
2051 Isaac is weaned, and Hagar and Ishmael are sent away Gen 21:8-21
2029 BC Abraham offers Isaac as a sacrifice, but God spares him Gen 22
2026 BC Sarah dies at the age of 127 Gen 23
2025 BC Isaac marries Rebekah Gen 24
? Abraham marries Keturah, fathered 6 sons, later sent them to the East, away from Isaac Gen25:1-7
2006 BC Esau and Jacob are born to Isaac and Rebekah Gen 25:19-26
1991 BC Abraham dies, his sons Isaac and Ishmael buries him Gen 25:8-11
1986 BC Esau sells his birthright to Jacob Gen 25:29-34
1929 BC Jacob deceives Isaac and receives the blessing; he flees to Paddan-Aram Gen 27-28
1922 BC Jacob marries Leah and Rachel; begins 14 years of labor for Laban Gen 29:15-30
1915 BC Birth of Joseph, Jacob's eleventh son, to Rachel Gen 30:22-24
1915 BC Jacob leaves Laban, returning to Canaan Gen 31
1914 BC Jacob wrestles with God, and his name is changed to Israel Gen 32
1913 BC Reconciliation with Esau; Jacob settles in Shechem Gen 33
1898 BC Joseph is sold into slavery by his brothers and taken to Egypt Gen 37
1886 BC Joseph interprets Pharaoh's dreams and becomes ruler of Egypt Gen 41:41:41-46
1886 BC Isaac dies, his sons Esau and Jacob buries him Gen 35:29-29
1876 BC Jacob's family moves to Egypt during the famin. Jacob is 130 years old. Gen 46
1859 BC Jacob dies at 147 years old, after blessing all his sons and the sons of Joseph Gen 48 & 49
1805 BC Joseph dies at 110 years old, makes his brothers swear an oath to take his bones with them when leaving Egypt Gen 50:26

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ISRAEL: SLAVERY TO EXODUS

SLAVERY TO EXODUS
DATE
(approximate)		 EVENT REFERENCE
1876 BC Jacob (Israel) moves to Egypt with his family due to famine, joining Joseph, settles in Goshen. Gen 46 & 47
1859 Jacob blesses his sons, as well as Joseph's two sons, and dies. Buried in family burial cave in Machpelah, according to his instructions to his sons. Gen 48-50:14
Joseph reassures his brothers of his forgiveness Gen 50:15-21
1805 Joseph dies, instructs them to take his bones to Canaan when they leave Egypt Gen 50:22-26
1876-1650 BC From Jacob's arrival to the rise of a new Pharaoh "to whom Joseph meant nothing", his descendants multiply and prosper in Egypt, fulfilling God's promise to Abraham. Gen 47:27, Ex 1:1-7
1650 BC A new Pharaoh enslaves the Israelites, fearing their growing population, and subjects them to harsh labor. Ex 1:8-22
1526 BC Birth of Moses, adopted by Pharoah's daughter, raised as a prince. Ex 2:1-10
1486 BC Moses, now aged 40, kills an Egyptian foe beating an Israelite, flees to Midian to escape from Pharoah Ex 2:11-15, Acts 7:23
1486 BC Moses meets his wife, tends the flock of his father-in-law for 40 years. Ex 2:17-25
1446 BC God appears to Moses in a burning bush at Mount Horeb, commissioning him to lead Israel out of Egypt. Moses now 80 years old. Ex 3:1-4:28, Ex 7:7
Moses meets with Aaron and Israelite leaders, tells them God has heard their groaning.
Pharoah refuses to let Israel go. God sends ten plagues upon Egypt, culminating in the death of the firstborn.		 Ex 7-12:42
First Passover eaten Ex 12
Consecration of the firstborn Ex 13:1-2
Pharaoh allows the Israelites to leave, chase after them with army. God parts the sea for Israelites to walk through, Egyptian army drowns Ex 14:1-15:21
Israel journeys to Mount Sinai. Manna and quail, water from the rock, Amalekites defeated, Moses' father-in-law visits and advises him. Ex 15:22-18:27
1446/5 BC Israel arrives at Mount Sinai.
God gives Moses the Ten Commandments and establishes a covenant with Israel. Instructions for the Tabernacle and other laws are provided.		 Ex 20-40, Lev 1-27
Census, various laws, various uprisings against Moses. Num 1-12
1445 BC Spies sent into Canaan. The Israelites rebel against God's plan to enter Canaan after hearing the spies' report. As punishment, they wander in the wilderness for 40 years. Num 13-36
Balaam blesses Israel instead of cursing.
Second census, war against Midianites, various laws given.		 Num 22-36
1445-1406 BC Forty years in the wilderness. Num 15-36
1406 BC Moses provides instructions, blessings, and warnings to Israel before they enter Canaan. Deut 1-30
Joshua appointed to succeed Joshua. Deut 31:1-8
Moses' final address to the Israelites
Moses blesses the tribes of Israel		 Deut 31:9 - 33:29
Moses views the Promised Land from Mount Nebo but is not allowed to enter. He dies.
Spies sent toJericho, saved by Rahab the prostitute Josh 2
The Israelites miraculously cross the Jordan River to arrive in Canaan.
Twelve stones are taken from the Jordan River and set up at Gilgal as a memorial. 		Josh 3 & 4
Circumcision and Passover at Gilgal Josh 5:1-12

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ISRAEL: THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN

THE CONQUEST OF CANAAN
DATE
(approximate)		 EVENT REFERENCE
1406 BC The Israelites miraculously cross the Jordan River into Canaan. Joshua 1 - 3
1406 BC Twelve stones are taken from the Jordan River and set up at Gilgal as a memorial. Joshua 4
1406 BC The new generation of Israelites is circumcised at Gilgal, and the Passover is celebrated. The manna ceases. Joshua 5:1-12
1406 BC The walls of Jericho fall after the Israelites march around the city for seven days. Joshua 5:13 -6:27
1406 BC Israel suffers a defeat at Ai due to Achans sin. Joshua 7
1406 BC After dealing with Achan's sin, the Israelites conquer Ai through a strategic ambush. Joshua 8:1-29
1406 BC Joshua builds an altar, and the people reaffirm their covenant with God at Mount Ebal. Joshua 8:30-35
1406 BC The Gibeonites deceive Israel into making a peace treaty with them. Joshua 9:1-27
1406 BC The Southern Campaign: Israel defeats a coalition of southern kings, including a miraculous hailstorm and the sun standing still. Joshua 10:1-43
1405 BC The Northern Campaign: Joshua leads Israel to victory over a coalition of northern kings. Joshua 11:1-23
1400 BC After seven years of conquest, the land is divided among the twelve tribes. Joshua 13:1 - 22:34
1390 BC Joshua gives his farewell address, urging faithfulness to God, and dies at the age of 110. Joshua 23:1 - 24:33

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ISRAEL: THE TIME OF THE JUDGES

THE TIME OF THE JUDGES
DATE
(approximate)		 JUDGE ACHIEVEMENTS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS REFERENCE
1406 - 1375 BC Joshua Led Israel into the Promised Land.
Oversaw the conquest of Canaan (e.g., Jericho, Ai).		 Joshua 1-24
1375 - 1335 BC Othniel Delivered Israel from King Cushan-Rishathaim of Mesopotamia.
Brought 40 years of peace.		 Judges 3:7-11
1316 - 1237 BC Ehud Assassinated Eglon, the Moabite king.
Secured 80 years of peace after defeating the Moabites. 		Judges 3:12-30
c. 1237 BC Shamgar Defeated 600 Philistines with an ox goad, protecting Israel. Judges 3:31
1237 - 1197 BC Deborah Deborah, a prophetess and judge, led Israel for 40 years
Inspired Barak to defeat Sisera's army.		 Judges 4:1 - 5:31
1197 - 1157 BC Gideon (Jerubbaal) Delivered Israel from the Midianites with only 300 men.
Refused kingship, emphasizing God's rule over Israel.
1157 - 1154 BC Abimelech Declared himself king through treachery.
Caused a civil war.
Died during the siege of Thebez when a woman dropped a millstone on his head.		 Judges 9:1-57
1154-1134 BC Tola Judges Israel for 23 years Judges 10:1-2
1134 - 1112 Jair Judged Israel for 22 years.
Had 30 sons who rode 30 donkeys and controlled 30 towns in Gilead.		 Judges 10:3-5
1112 - 1106 Jephthah Defeated the Ammonites but made a tragic vow involving his daughter. Judges 11:1 - 12:7
1106 - 1099 Ibzan Judged Israel for 7 years.
Known for his many children and political marriages. 		Judges 12:8-10
1099 - 1089 Elon Judged Israel for 10 years. Judges 12:11-12
1089 - 1081 BC Abdon Judged Israel for 8 years.
Had 40 sons and 30 grandsons who rode 70 donkeys.		 Juges 12: 13-15
1081 - 1061 Samson Known for his supernatural strength.
Delivered Israel from the Philistines on numerous occasions.
Tricked into revealing the secret of his strength by his Philistine wife Delilah, captured, had his eyes gouged out, set to grinding grain in prison.
Died in a Philistine temple by pulling it down on him and thousands of Philistines.
Mentioned in Hebrews 12 as one of the heroes of the faith.
±1200 - 1050 BC Unknown The events in the last 5 chapters of Judges cannot be dated with certainty, recounting a series of events that illustrate the spiritual and moral decline of Israel. These chapters serve as an appendix to the main narrative, focusing on individual stories that highlight the chaos resulting from Israel's lack of centralized leadership, often summarized by the phrase: "In those days, there was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his own eyes" (see Judges 21:25). Judges 17 - 21
Unknown The Story of Micah and the Danite Migration:
 
A man named Micah from the hill country of Ephraim steals 1,100 pieces of silver from his mother but later confesses and returns it. His mother dedicates part of the silver to create an idol, and Micah establishes a private shrine, complete with an ephod and household gods.
Micah hires a wandering Levite to serve as his personal priest, violating Israelite religious norms.
 
The tribe of Dan, struggling to settle their allotted land, sends spies to find a new home. The spies discover Micah's shrine and consult the Levite priest, who gives them a favorable oracle. Encouraged, the Danites send an army to conquer the city of Laish, a peaceful and prosperous community.
On their way, they steal Micah's idols and convince the Levite to become their priest. The Danites destroy Laish, rebuild it as their city, and set up Micah's idol, establishing a legacy of idolatry.		 Judges 17 - 18
Unknown The Crime at Gibeah and Civil War:
 
A Levite and his concubine travel through the tribal territory of Benjamin and stay in Gibeah. During the night, men of the city demand to abuse the Levite, but the concubine is sent out instead. She is brutally assaulted and dies.
 
In the morning, the Levite cuts her body into twelve pieces and sends them to the tribes of Israel as a call to action.
 
The tribes of Israel unite in outrage and demand justice from the Benjaminites, but the tribe refuses to surrender the perpetrators. A civil war erupts, pitting the eleven tribes against Benjamin. After initial losses, Israel defeats Benjamin, killing thousands and nearly annihilating the tribe. Only 600 Benjaminites survive, fleeing to the wilderness.		 Judges 19 - 20
Unknown The Preservation of Benjamin:
 
The Israelites regret their near-extermination of the tribe of Benjamin and seek to preserve it. To provide wives for the surviving Benjaminites, they attack Jabesh-Gilead, killing its inhabitants except for young women, who are given to Benjamin.
 
Additional wives are obtained by allowing the Benjaminites to abduct women during a festival at Shiloh. 		Judges 21
1080 - 1010 BC Samuel Last of the Judges, first of the prophets
His life overlapped with the last years of Samson.
Served as judge, priest, and prophet.
Transitioned Israel to monarchy by anointing Saul and David as kings.
Reformed Israel's spiritual life. 		1 Samuel 1-16

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SAMUEL, SAUL, AND DAVID

DATE
(approximate)		 EVENT REFERENCE
SAMUEL
1105 BC Hannah's prayer and Samuel's birth 1 Sam 1:1-20
1080 BC Samuel's calling 1 Sam 3:1-21
1075-1050 BC Samuel becomes judge of Israel 1 Sam 7:3-17
1050 BC Israel demands a king 1 Sam 8:1-22
SAUL
1050 BC Saul anointed a king 1 Sam 9:1-10:27
1049 BC Saul's victory at Jabesh-Gilead 1 Sam 11:1-15
1049 BC Samuel's farewell address to Israel 1 Sam 12:1-25
1040 BC Saul's first major failing: unlawfully offers a burnt sacrifice 1 Sam 13:1-15
1038 BC Jonathan's victory over the Philistines 1 Sam 14:1-52
1025 BC Saul's Second major failure: disobeys God's command to completely destroy the Amalekites 1 Sam 15:1-35
DAVID
1024 BC David anointed as future king 1 Sam 16:1-13
1023 BC David serves in Saul's court 1 Sam 16:14-23
1022 BC David and Goliath 1 Sam 17:1-58
1021 BC Saul becomes jealous of David 1 Sam 18:1-30
1020 BC Jonathan and David's covenant 1 Sam 20:1-42
1019-1012 BC David flees from Saul 1 Sam 21:21-24
1018 BC Saul slaughters the priests at Nob 1 Sam 24:1-22
1017 BC David spares Saul's life at En Gedi, refusing to kill the Lord's anointed 1 Sam 24:1-22
1016 BC Samuel's death 1 Sam 25:1
1016 BC David and Abigail 1 Sam 25:2-42
1015 BC David spares Saul again 1 Sam 16:1-25
1010 BC Saul consults the witch of Endor 1 Sam 28:1-25
1010 BC The death of Saul and Jonathan in battle 1 Sam 31:1-13
1010 BC David becomes king over Judah 2 Sam 2:1-7
1008 BC Civil war between the houses of David and Saul 2 Sam 5:1-5
1003 BC David becomes king over all Israel 2 Samuel 5:1-5
1003 BC David captures Jerusalem 2 Sam 5:6-16
1002 BC The Ark of the Covenant brought to Jerusalem 2 Sam 6:1-23
1000 BC God establishes the covenant with David 2 Sam 7:1-29
(1003-975 BC) David's military victories and reign 2 Sam 8:1-18; 2 Sam 10:1-19
? 1000 BC Davis shows kindness to Mephibosheth 2 Sam 9:1-13
997/6 BC David's sin with Bathsheba 2 Sam 11:1-27
Nathan confronts David
The death of David and Bathsheba's son 2 Sam 12:16-23
995 BC The birth of Solomon 2 Sam 12:24-25
992 BC Amnon and Tamar 2 Sam 13:1-22
990 BC Absalom kills Amnon and flees 2 Sam 13:23-39
987-985 BC Absalom's return and rebellion 2 Sam 14:1-15:37
David flees Jerusalem 2 Sam 16:1-14
Absalom's death 2 Sam 20:1-26
984 BC Sheba's rebellion 2 Sam 20:1-26
982 BC The Gibeonite revenge (To atone for Saul's actions against the Gibeonites, David allows the execution of seven of Saul's descendants) 2 Sam 21;1-14
(1019-975 BC) David's military successes and "Mighty Men" 2 Sam 21:15-22; 23:8-39
980 BC David's census and God's judgement 2 Sam 24:1-25); 1 Chron 21:1-30
975 BC David prepares for the building of the temple 1 Chron 22:1-19; 28:1-21
972/1 BC Adonijah's attempt to take the throne 1 Kings 1:1-27
972/1 Solomon anointed as king 1 Kings 1:28-53
971 BC David's final instructions to Solomon 1 Kings 2:1-9
970 BC David's death and burial 1 Kings 2:10-12, 1 Chron 29:26-30

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THE UNITED MONARCHY OF ISRAEL

KING DATE
(approximate)		 ACHIEVEMENTS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS REFERENCE
Saul 1050 - 1010 BC Anointed as Israel's first king by the prophet Samuel.
Unified the tribes of Israel under one monarchy.
Victorious over the Ammonites.
Defeated the Philistines and established Israelite dominance in key areas.
Began campaigns against the Amalekites.
His leadership faltered due to disobedience to God, resulting in the loss of divine favor. 		1 Samuel 9-31
David 1010 - 970 BC Defeated Goliath, showcasing his faith and courage.
Unified Israel under strong leadership after Saul's death.
Conquered Jerusalem and made it the political and spiritual capital.
Brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem, establishing it as the center of worship.
Expanded Israel's territory, defeating the Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, and Arameans).
Composed many Psalms, influencing Israelite worship.
Drew up the plans for the temple in Jerusalem, collected necessary materials and funds for Solomon to build it.
Despite personal failures, he was known as "a man after God's own heart". 		2 Samuel 16-1 Kings 2
Solomon 970 - 931 BC Built the First Temple in Jerusalem, centralizing worship.
Known for his extraordinary wisdom, including the famous judgment between two mothers.
Strengthened Israel's economy through trade alliances, particularly with Tyre.
Built extensive infrastructure, including cities, palaces, and fortifications.
Presided over Israel's peak of wealth and cultural influence.
Wrote much of the Proverbs, as well as Ecclesiastes and Song of Solomon.
His later years were marred by idolatry influenced by foreign wives.		 1 Kings 1-11

KEY DATES
 
931 BC Division of the Kingdom
722 BC Fall of Israel, the Northern Kingdom
586 BC Fall of Judah, the Southern Kingdom

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THE DIVIDED MONARCHY: THE NORTHERN KINGDOM OF ISRAEL

KING DATE
(approximate)		 ACHIEVEMENTS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS REFERENCE
Jeroboam I 931 - 910 BC Rebelled against Solomon's son Rehoboam, leading to the division of the kingdom.
Established new centers of worship at Bethel and Dan, using golden calves to discourage people from worshiping in Jerusalem.
Secured alliances and strengthened the newly formed Northern Kingdom.
His idolatrous practices became a lasting sin for Israel.		 1 Kings 12-14
Nadab 910 - 909 Bc Son of Jeroboam, ruled briefly.
Assassinated by Baasha.		 1 Kings 15:25-31.
Baasha 909 - 886 BC Usurped the throne, wiped out Jeroboam's dynasty.
Continued idolatry.		 1 Kings 15:32-16:7
Elah 886 - 885 BC Son of Baasha, ruled briefly.
Assassinated by Zimri.		 1 Kings 16:8-14
Zimri 885 BC Reigned for only seven days.
Died by suicide after Omri's coup.		 1 Kings 16:15-20
Omri 885 - 874 BC Founded Samaria, making it the capital of the Northern Kingdom.
Strengthened Israel's international reputation and formed alliances, including one with Phoenicia through Ahab's marriage to Jezebel.
Known for his military strength and consolidation of power.
His dynasty marked a turning point in Israel's history, though it also deepened idolatry.		 1 Kings 16:21-28.
Ahab 874 - 853 BC Married Jezebel, introducing widespread Baal worship.
Opposed by Elijah the prophet, especially during the confrontation on Mount Carmel.
Strengthened Israel's army and expanded its borders.
Built an ivory palace and fortified cities.		 1 Kings 16-22
Ahaziah 853 - 852 BC Son of Ahab and Jezebel.
Continued Baal worship; injured in an accident and died without an heir.		 1 Kings 22:51-2 Kings 1:18
Joram (Jehoram) 852 - 841 BC Brother of Ahaziah.
Allied with Judah; opposed Moab.
Killed by Jehu.		 2 Kings 3:1-9:26
Jehu 841 - 814 BC Overthrew the house of Ahab and executed Jezebel.
Destroyed Baal worship in Israel but failed to remove Jeroboam's golden calves.
Strengthened Israel militarily but faced challenges from Aram (Syria).		 2 Kings 9-10
Jehoahaz 814 - 798 BC Faced oppression by Aram.
Turned to God, who provided relief.		 2 Kings 13:1-9
Jehoash (Joash) 798 - 793 BC Continued wars with Aram.
Met Elisha on his deathbed.		 2 Kings 13:10-25
Jeroboam II 793 - 753 BC Restored Israel's borders to their greatest extent since Solomon's reign.
Brought economic prosperity to Israel, though moral and spiritual decline persisted.
His reign was marked by growing inequality and idolatry, as warned by prophets like Amos and Hosea.		 2 Kings 14
Zechariah 753 - 752 BC Last king of Jehu's dynasty.
Assassinated by Shallum.		 2 Kings 15:8-12
Shallum 752 BC Reigned one month.
Assassinated by Menahem.		 2 Kings 15:13-15
Menahem 752 - 742 BC Brutally suppressed opposition.
Paid tribute to Assyria.		 2 Kings 15:16-22
Pekahiah 742 - 740 BC Son of Menahem.
Assassinated by Pekah.		 2 Kings 15:23-26
Pekah 740 - 732 BC Opposed Assyria but lost much territory.
Assassinated by Hoshea.		 2 Kings 15:27-31
Hoshea 732 - 722 BC Last king of Israel, during which Assyria invaded and conquered Samaria.
Attempted to rebel against Assyria by allying with Egypt, leading to Israel's destruction and exile.		 2 Kings 17

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THE DIVIDED MONARCHY: THE SOUTHERN KINGDOM OF JUDAH

KING DATE
(approximate)		 ACHIEVEMENTS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS REFERENCE


 
Rehoboam 931 - 913 BC His harsh policies caused the kingdom to split, lost 10 tribes to Jeroboam.
Fortified cities in Judah to strengthen defenses against Israel.
Allowed idolatry to flourish during his reign.		 1 Kings 12-14; 2 Chronicles 10-12
Abijah 913 - 911 BC Won a key battle against Jeroboam).
Continued idolatry.		 1 Kings 15:1-8; 2 Chronicles 13
Asa 911 - 870 BC Religious reformer who removed idols and restored worship of Yahweh.
Faced challenges from Israel.
Strengthened Judah's defenses by building fortified cities.
Trusted in God for victory over a massive Ethiopian invasion.		 1 Kings 15:9-24; 2 Chronicles 14-16
Jehoshaphat 870 - 849 BC Promoted religious reforms and sent officials to teach the law throughout Judah.
Strengthened alliances with Israel through marriage and military cooperation.
Won a miraculous victory against a coalition of enemies through worship and prayer.		 1 Kings 22; 2 Chronicles 17-20
Jehoram 849 - 841 BC Married Ahab's daughter, Athaliah.
Introduced Baal worship.		 2 Kings 8:16-24; 2 Chronicles 21.
Ahaziah 841 BC Brief reign. Allied with Israel against Aram. 2 Kings 8:25-29. 2 Chronicles 22:1-9
Athaliah 841 - 835 BC Queen who seized the throne after her son's death.
Promoted Baal worship.
Overthrown in a coup led by Jehoiada the priest.		 2 Kings 11; 2 Chronicles 22:10-23:21
Joash 835 - 796 BC Undertook significant repairs to the Temple in Jerusalem, organizing a system to collect offerings for the work.
Early in his reign, Joash was mentored by the high priest Jehoiada, who influenced him to follow the ways of the Lord.
Initially promoted the worship of Yahweh and discouraged idolatry while under Jehoiada's guidance, but after Jehoiada's death, Joash turned away from God and allowed idolatry to flourish.
Faced attacks from the Arameans, leading to the loss of significant treasures from the Temple.
Ordered the stoning of Zechariah, son of Jehoiada, for rebuking the king and the people for their unfaithfulness to God.
Assassinated by his servants in a conspiracy due to his unpopularity in his later years		 2 Kings 11:1-12:21; 2 Chronicles 22:10-24:27
Amaziah 769 -767 BC Military success against Edom but introduced idols.
After a series of unpopular decisions and military defeats, a conspiracy arose against him in Jerusalem. He fled to Lachish, but the conspirators pursued him there and killed him.(		 2 Kings 14:1-20; 2 Chronicles 25.
Uzziah (Azariah) 767 - 740 BC Expanded Judah's territory by defeating the Philistines, Arabs, and Meunites.
Strengthened Judah's defenses by fortifying Jerusalem with towers and advanced weaponry, including war machines for shooting arrows and hurling stones, and built and equipped a powerful, well-trained army.
Developed agriculture and dug wells, showing a strong focus on the land's productivity.
Fostered trade and infrastructure, leading to a period of wealth and stability.
Sought the Lord under the guidance of Zechariah, and as long as he sought God, he prospered.
Became prideful due to his success and attempted to burn incense in the Temple, a role reserved only for priests. God struck him with leprosy for his arrogance, and he lived in isolation for the rest of his life. He was buried in a field near the royal tombs because of his leprosy, signaling his dishonor despite his earlier achievements.
Due to his leprosy, his son Jotham ruled as co-regent during his later years.		 2 Kings 15:1-7; 2 Chronicles 26
Jotham 750 - 732 BC Built infrastructure and maintained faithfulness to God. 2 Kings 15:32-38; 2 Chronicles 27
Ahaz 732 - 716 BC Wicked king who introduced pagan practices.
Aligned with Assyria.		 2 Kings 16, 2 Chronicles 28
Hezekiah 715 - 686 BC Instituted sweeping religious reforms: removed high places, destroyed idols, and broke the bronze serpent (Nehushtan) that had become an object of idolatry.
Restored proper worship in the Temple and re-established the celebration of the Passover, inviting the remnant of Israel to join.
Revived the Levitical priesthood and restructured temple service.
Rebelled against Assyria, refusing to pay tribute.
Strengthened Judah's defenses by fortifying Jerusalem and preparing for an Assyrian invasion, including securing water supply through the construction of the Siloam Tunnel.
Miraculously delivered from Assyria when God struck down 185,000 Assyrian soldiers under Sennacherib's command after Hezekiah prayed for deliverance.
When afflicted with a terminal illness, he prayed to God, who granted him 15 additional years of life.
Welcomed envoys from Babylon and showed them Judah's wealth and treasures, a move that Isaiah rebuked as a sign of Judah's eventual downfall.
"He trusted in the Lord, the God of Israel. There was no one like him among all the kings of Judah" (2 Kings 18:5-6). 		2 Kings 18-20; 2 Chronicles 29-32
Manasseh 686 - 642 BC Wicked king who introduced extreme idolatry.
Repented late in life.		 2 Kings 21:1-18; 2 Chronicles 33:1-20
Amon 642 - 640 BC Amon followed the idolatrous practices of his father, Manasseh, and was known for abandoning the worship of Yahweh.
Amon ruled for only two years before being killed by palace servants in his own house. The conspirators were killed by the people of the land, who then placed Amon's son, Josiah, on the throne.		 2 Kings 21:19-26; 2 Chronicles 33:21-25
Josiah 940 - 609 BC Began seeking the Lord in his youth and initiated a national religious revival at age 20, purging Judah and Israel of idolatry, high places, Asherah poles, and Baal worship.
Repaired and restored the Temple in Jerusalem, initiating a renewed focus on proper worship.
During the Temple restoration, the Book of the Law (likely Deuteronomy) was discovered. Josiah was deeply moved by its contents, leading to personal repentance and national reforms. He made a covenant before the Lord, pledging to follow His commands and urging the people to do the same.
Destroyed pagan altars, including the destruction of the altar at Bethel, fulfilling a prophecy from 1 Kings 13:2.
Reinstituted the celebration of the Passover, which had not been properly observed for centuries, making it a monumental event in Judah's history.
Rejected Assyrian influence and aimed to restore Judah's autonomy.
Despite warnings, Josiah confronted Pharaoh Necho II of Egypt, who was traveling through Judah to aid Assyria. This led to Josiah's death in battle at Megiddo.		 2 Kings 22-23; 2 Chronicles 34-35
Jehoahaz 609 BC Deposed by Egypt. 2 Kings 23:31-35; 2 Chronicles 36:1-4
Jehoiakim 609 - 598 BC Originally named Eliakim, he was placed on the throne by Pharaoh Necho II after deposing his brother Jehoahaz. His name was changed to Jehoiakim as a sign of subservience to Egypt.
Imposed heavy taxes on the people to pay tribute to Egypt.
After Babylon defeated Egypt at the Battle of Carchemish (605 BC), Judah became a vassal state to Babylon. Jehoiakim served King Nebuchadnezzar for three years before rebelling. This rebellion provoked Babylonian attacks and incursions by other neighboring nations.
Known for oppressive policies and shedding innocent blood, earning the condemnation of the prophet Jeremiah.
Rejected and burned a scroll containing Jeremiah's prophetic warnings, symbolizing his disdain for God's word (Jeremiah 36:20-24).		 2 Kings 23:36-24:7, 2 Chronicles 36:5-8
Jehoiachin 598-597 BC Became king as Babylon besieged Jerusalem due to his father Jehoiakim's rebellion. Faced overwhelming pressure from Nebuchadnezzar and quickly surrendered to Babylon to save the city.
Taken into captivity along with his family, officials, and 10,000 of Judah's elite, including craftsmen and soldiers, leaving the land impoverished. This was the first major deportation of Jews to Babylon, a key event leading to the Babylonian Exile.
He spent 37 years in Babylonian captivity. Eventually released and given a place of honor at the king's table by Evil-Merodach, Nebuchadnezzar's successor.		 2 Kings 24:8-16; 2 Chronicles 36:9-10
Zedekiah 597 - 586 BC Installed as king by Nebuchadnezzar after the exile of Jehoiachin. Originally named Mattaniah, his name was changed to Zedekiah as a sign of Babylonian authority.
Allowed corruption and injustice to flourish in Judah, further alienating the people from God.
Initially pledged loyalty to Nebuchadnezzar but later rebelled, seeking support from Egypt, despite warnings from the prophet Jeremiah to remain loyal to Babylon (Jeremiah 27:12-22). This rebellion provoked Nebuchadnezzar to lay siege to Jerusalem in 588 BC.
In 586 BCE, after a two-year siege, Jerusalem was breached by Babylonian forces. The city was destroyed, the Temple burned, and the walls torn down, marking the final end of the Kingdom of Judah.
Zedekiah attempted to flee but was captured near Jericho. Forced to witness the execution of his sons before his eyes were gouged out, he was then taken in chains to Babylon, where he died in captivity.		 2 Kings 24-25; Jeremiah 52

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THE EXILE IN BABYLON

THE EXILE IN BABYLON
(Deutero-canonical references in italics)
DATE EVENT REFERENCE
586 BC Fall of Jerusalem, destruction of the Temple 2 Kings 25, Jeremiah 39, Baruch 1:1-9
582 BC Final deportation, Gedaliah's assassination Jeremiah 52:30, 2 Kings 25:11-26, Baruch 1:10-22
562 BC Death of Nebuchadnezzar II Jeremiah 52:31, Baruch 2:1-3:8 (theological reflection)
561 BD Jehoiachin released from prison 2 Kings 25:27
553 BC Rise of Cyrus Daniel (context), Tobit 14:4-5; Baruch 4:21-29
539 BC Fall of Babylon to the Persians Daniel 5, Bel and the Dragon
538 BC Edict of Cyrus, allowing the Jews to return Ezra 1:1-4, Baruch 4:36-5:9; Tobit 13-14

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THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD

THE POST-EXILIC PERIOD
Date Events Individuals
539 BC Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon
538 BC Edict of Cyrus allows Jes to go home and rebuild the temple
Temple articles returned to Jews (Ezra 1:8) 		Ruler: Cyrus the Great
Jewish leader: Sheshbazzar (prince of Judah, Ezra 1:8)
High priest: Joshua (Jeshua) son of Jehozadak (Haggai 1:1).
537-520 BC First return to Jerusalem
Temple foundation laid (~536 BC), construction stalls due to opposition (Ezra 4)		 Ruler: Cyrus the Great (539-530 BC), succeeded by Cambyses II (530-522 BC)
Governor: Zerubbabel; High priest: Joshua
520-518 BC Prophets Haggai and Zechariah called people to resume building the temple Ruler: Darius I (522-486 BC)
Governor: Zerubbabel; High priest: Joshua. Prophets: Haggai Aug-Dec 520 BC (Haggai 1:1, 2:10); Zechariah begins Nov 520 BC (Zech 1:1)
516 BC Second Temple is completed and dedicated (Ezra 6:15)
(This marks the end of the 70-year exile (586-518 BC))		 Ruler: Darius I (522-486 BC)
Governor: Zerubbabel; High priest: Joshua. Prophets: continued prophetic activity from Zechariah
458 BC Ezra, a priest and scribe, leads a second group of exiles to Jerusalem
He initiates religious reforms, focused on restoring the Law and proper worship		 Ruler: Artaxerxes I Longimanus (465-424 BC) High Priest: probably Joiakim, son of Joshua (Neh 12:10)
455-433 BC Nehemiah, cupbearer to Artaxerxes I, is appointed governor of Judah.
Reforms civil and religious life.
Leads the rebuilding of Jerusalem's walls (completed in 52 days, Nehemiah 6:15).		 Ruler: Artaxerxes I
Leader: Nehemiah; High Priest: Eliashib (Nehemiah 3:1; 13:28)
Prophets: Malachi is likely active during or shortly after Nehemiah's governorship, addressing laxity in temple service and corruption
433 BC Nehemiah returns to Persia (Nehemiah 13:6) but later comes back to address further issues
435-430 BC Ministry of Malachi: critiques corrupt priests, lax worship, divorce, and social injustice
Anticipates a future messenger ("Elijah") and the "day of the Lord" (Malachi 3-4).		 Ruler:Artaxerxes I
Leader : Nehemiah (returning); High priest: Eliashib

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THE INTERTESTAMENTAL PERIOD

OVERVIEW OF THE INTER-TESTAMENTAL PERIOD
Date(s) Events
430-332 BC Jews live under relative peace and religious freedom
The Temple functions under high priestly leadership
Scribes and Torah teachers gain influence as prophecy ceases
Jerusalem remains the center of worship
332 BC Alexander the Great conquers the Persian Empire, Judah comes under Greek control.
Beginning of Hellenistic influence: Greek language and culture spread.
Jews begin speaking Greek, and Diaspora communities grow (especially in Egypt).
323 BC Death of Alexander, empire splits
Judah caught between two Greek empires: Ptolemies (Egypt) and Seleucids (Syria)
Mostly under Ptolemaic control initially; religious life continues.
205-200 BC Septuagint (LXX) Translation: Jewish scholars in Alexandria translate the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek
Becomes the primary Scriptures of Hellenistic Jews and later the early Church
198 BC Judea shifts from Egyptian (Ptolemaic) to Syrian (Seleucid) rule: Seleucid King Antiochus III takes control of Judea
At first, Jews are treated favorably.
175-164 BC Reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (Seleucid king)
Begins aggressive Hellenization.
168 BC "Abomination of Desolation": Antiochus defiles the Temple, forbids Jewish practices.
Torah banned; Sabbath, circumcision outlawed.
167 BC Jewish revolt begins under Mattathias and his sons (Maccabees)
164 BC Judah Maccabee retakes Jerusalem.
Temple cleansed and rededicated (origin of Hanukkah)
Beginning of partial Jewish independence under the Hasmonean dynasty.
142-63 BC Hasmonean Rule (Priest-Kings): Jewish state ruled by descendants of Mattathias (Hasmoneans)
High priests and kings are now political and religious leaders
Expansion of Jewish territory.
Growing internal conflict:
   Rise of Pharisees (law-focused reformers)
   Sadducees (elite priestly class)
   Essenes (separatists)
   Zealots (revolutionaries)
135-63 BC John Hyrcanus I (Hasmonean ruler), expands Jewish territory by force
Destroys Samaritan Temple at Mount Gerizim
Enforces conversion to Judaism in some areas (e.g., Idumeans)
63 BC Roman General Pompey conquers Jerusalem, end of Hasmonean independence
Judea becomes a Roman client state
Temple desecrated again (Pompey enters Holy of Holies)
37 BC Herod (Idumean) the Great made King of Judea by Rome, marries Hasmonean princess to gain legitimacy
Ruthless ruler but master builder - massive expansion of Second Temple begins (~20 BC)
Known for cruelty and paranoia: orders deaths of rivals (including his own sons), later associated with massacre of Bethlehem's infants (Matthew 2).
6-4 BC Birth of Jesus Christ: conservative dating places Jesus' birth around 5 or 6 BC (before Herod's death).
Wise men seek the "King of the Jews", alarming Herod.
Joseph, Mary, and Jesus flee to Egypt, fulfilling prophecy (Hosea 11:1).
4 BC Death of Herod the Great
Kingdom divided among his sons:
   Herod Archelaus (Judea, Samaria, removed in AD 6)
   Herod Antipas (Galilee and Perea, rules until 39 AD)
   Herod Philip (northeast regions)
Judea later ruled directly by Roman governors (e.g., Pontius Pilate).
6 AD Judea becomes Roman province
After Archelaus is removed, Judea is ruled by Roman prefects
Roman census of Quirinius causes unrest (see Acts 5:37)
Pharisees and Zealots become more vocal against Roman rule
6-1 BC Birth of John the Baptist - son of Zechariah (a priest) and Elizabeth (from Aaron's line)
Miraculous birth foretold by an angel (Luke 1), John Destined to fulfill Malachi's prophecy of "Elijah who is to come"
25-27 AD Public ministry of John the Baptist begins, he preaches repentance and baptism in the wilderness (Matthew 3)
Declares the coming of the Messiah and the Kingdom of God
Recognizes Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:29)
Baptizes Jesus (Mark 1:9-11)
Later imprisoned and executed by Herod Antipas

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The Life Of Christ

THE LIFE OF CHRIST
DATE
 EVENT REFERENCE
5 BC Birth in Bethlehem (possibly during Feast of Tabernacles), during Herod's reign Matthew 2:1-12, Luke 2:1-20
Presentation at Temple – Circumcision (8 days), Purification (40 days) Luke 2:22-38
Early 4 BC Flight to Egypt – Escape from Herod; massacre of infants Matthew 2:13-18
3 BC Return and Settlement in Nazareth after Herod's death Matthew 2:19-23, Luke 2:39
AD 8 Passover at Age 12 – Teaching in the Temple Luke 2:41-52
AD 26-27 Baptism by John; Voice from Heaven Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-22
Temptation in the Wilderness – 40 days fasting Matthew 4:1-11, Mark 1:12-13, Luke 4:1-13
First Disciples Called – Peter, Andrew, James, John Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20
Wedding at Cana – Water turned to wine John 2:1-11
First Passover – Temple Cleansing John 2:13-25
Meeting with Nicodemus – "You must be born again" John 3:1-21
Samaritan Woman at the Well – "Worship in spirit and truth" John 4:1-42
AD 28 Sermon on the Mount – Beatitudes, Lord's Prayer Matthew 5-7, Luke 6:17-49
Calling of the Twelve Apostles Matthew 10:1-4, Mark 3:13-19, Luke 6:12-16
Second Passover – Feeding of the 5,000 Matthew 14:13-21, Mark 6:30-44, Luke 9:10-17, John 6:1-15
Bread of Life Discourse – "I am the bread of life" John 6:22-71
AD 29 Feast of Tabernacles – "If anyone thirsts..." John 7:1-52
Feast of Dedication (Hanukkah) – "I and My Father are one" John 10:22-42
Transfiguration – Appearance of Moses and Elijah Matthew 17:1-13, Mark 9:2-13, Luke 9:28-36
Raising of Lazarus – "I am the resurrection and the life" John 11:1-57
AD 30 Final Passover – Triumphal Entry (Palm Sunday) Matthew 21:1-11, Mark 11:1-11, Luke 19:28-44, John 12:12-19
Second Temple Cleansing – "House of prayer for all nations" Matthew 21:12-17, Mark 11:15-19
Last Supper – Communion instituted, foot washing Matthew 26:17-30, Mark 14:12-26, Luke 22:7-23, John 13-17
Gethsemane and Arrest – "Not my will, but yours" Matthew 26:36-56, Mark 14:32-52, Luke 22:39-53, John 18:1-12
Crucifixion – Trials, death at Golgotha at 3 PM Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23, John 19
Resurrection (Sunday) – Appearances to disciples Matthew 28, Mark 16, Luke 24, John 20-21
Ascension (40 days later) – From Mount of Olives Acts 1:1-11


FESTIVALS ATTENDED BY CHRIST
FESTIVAL DETAILS
Passover (Pesach) · AD 8 (age 12) – First recorded visit
· AD 27 – First temple cleansing
· AD 28 – Feeding of the 5,000
· AD 30 – Final Passover, crucifixion
Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot) · AD 29 – Teaching in Jerusalem
· "Rivers of living water"
· Autumn harvest festival
Feast of Dedication (Hanukkah) · AD 29 – Solomon's Portico
· "I and My Father are one"
· Winter festival of lights
Sabbath (Weekly) · Regular synagogue attendance
· "As was his custom" (Luke 4:16)
· Numerous Sabbath healings



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BIBLE BOOKS: AUTHORS AND TIME OF WRITING

BOOK AUTHOR DATE
(Approximately)
OLD TESTAMENT
THE PENTATEUCH
Genesis Traditionally Moses ca 1445 BC
Exodus Traditionally Moses ca 1445 BC
Leviticus Traditionally Moses ca 1445 BC
Numbers Traditionally Moses ca 1407 BC
Deuteronomy Traditionally Moses ca 1406 BC
HISTORICAL BOOKS
Joshua Traditionally Joshua ca 1380 BC
Judges Traditionally Samuel ca 1050-1040 BC
Ruth Traditionally Samuel and the prophets Gad and Nathan ca 1050 BC
1 & 2 Samuel 1 Samuel: Traditionally Samuel, with additions by the prophets Gad and Nathan
2 Samuel: The prophets Gad and Nathan (See 1 Chronicles 29:29)		 ca 1021-1000 BC
1 & 2 Kings Traditionally Jeremiah ca 560-540 BC
1 & 2 Chronicles Traditionally Ezra ca 450-400 BC
Ezra Traditionally Ezra ca 450 BC
Nehemiah Traditionally Jeremiah ca 430 BC
Esther Traditionally Mordecai or an unknown Jewish author ca 465 BC
WISDOM (or POETIC) BOOKS
Job Traditionally Job, with possible additions by others ca 2000-1500 BC
Psalms Traditionally David and other authors, as indicated. ca 1000-400 BC. Perhaps finally compiled around AD 400.
Proverbs Traditionally Solomon, with additions by others ca 950-700 BC
Ecclesiastes Traditionally Solomon ca 935
Song of Solomon (Song of Songs) Traditionally Solomon ca 965
THE PROPHETS
Major Prophets
Isaiah Isaiah ca 740-700 BC
Jeremiah Jeremiah ca 585 BC
Lamentations Traditionally Jeremiah ca 586 BC
Ezekiel Ezekiel ca 570 BC
Daniel Daniel ca 530 BC
Minor Prophets
Hosea Traditionally Hosea 715 BC
Joel Traditionally Joel ca 500 - 400 BC
Amos Traditionally Amos 750 BC
Obadiah Traditionally Obadiah 590-586 BC
Jonah Traditionally Jonah ca 780 BC
Micah Traditionally Micah ca 700 BC
Nahum Traditionally Nahum ca 650 BC
Habakkuk Traditionally Habakkuk ca 610 BC
Zephaniah Traditionally Zephaniah ca 625 BC>
Haggai Traditionally Haggai ca 520 BC
Zechariah Traditionally Zechariah ca 518 BC
Malachi Malachi ca 420 BC
NEW TESTAMENT
THE GOSPELS
Matthew Traditionally the apostle Matthew, the tax collector AD 54-55
Mark Traditionally John Mark AD 40-50
Luke Traditionally Luke, the physician and companion of Paul AD 60-62
John Traditionally John the apostle AD 80-90
ACTS
Acts Traditionally Luke, the physician and companion of Paul AD 62-64
EPISTLES OF THE APOSTLE PAUL
Romans In all of these letters the author is identified as Paul, and early church tradition accepted the apostle Paul as the author. Only in the late 19th and early 20th centuries did some liberal scholars reject this view. Modern scholarship, based on latest archaeological discoveries and documents, has mostly come to agree with the traditional views. There is really no reason to doubt Paul's authorship and, as most conservative Bible scholars, we consider Paul to be the author of all the letters traditionally ascribed to him. AD 57
1 Corinthians AD 54/55
2 Corinthians AD 56
Galatians AD 48
Ephesians AD 61
Philippians AD 61
Colossians AD 61
1 Thessalonians AD 51
2 Thessalonians AD 51
1 Timothy AD 60
2 Timothy AD 62-64
Titus AD 62-63
Philemon AD 61
THE PASTORAL/GENERAL EPISTLES
Hebrews The author is unknown, and does not indentify himself in the letter. Traditionally Paul and Barnabas were considered possible authors, also Apollos and others. AD 60-68
James Traditionally attributed to James, the brother of Jesus AD 45
1 Peter Traditionally the apostle Peter AD 60-62
2 Peter Traditionally the apostle Peter AD 63-64
1 John Traditionally the apostle John AD 95
2 John Traditionally the apostle John AD 95
3 John Traditionally the apostle John AD 95
Jude Traditionally Jude, the brother of Jesus AD 66
REVELATION
Revelation Traditionally the apostle John AD 95

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BIBLE BOOKS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF WRITING

(All dates are approximations, according to conservative scholars.)
THE OLD TESTAMENT
 Job
2000-1500 BC, possibly written later around 1440 BC
Often considered the oldest book in the Bible, potentially written during the time of the Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob). A poetic dialogue on suffering and God's justice. Job, a righteous man, endures great suffering and seeks answers from God.
 
Genesis
ca 1445 BC, traditionally attributed to Moses
The book of beginnings – creation, the fall, the flood, and the patriarchal stories of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph, ending with Israel in Egypt.
 
Exodus
ca 1445 BC, traditionally attributed to Moses
Describes Israel's deliverance from Egyptian slavery, the giving of the Law at Mount Sinai, and instructions for the Tabernacle.
 
Leviticus
ca 1445 BC, traditionally attributed to Moses
Contains laws regarding worship, sacrifices, and holiness, outlining how Israel is to live as a holy nation in relationship with God.
 
Numbers
ca 1407 BC, traditionally attributed to Moses
Chronicles Israel's wilderness wanderings, focusing on their disobedience, God's provision, and the preparation to enter the Promised Land.
 
Deuteronomy
ca 1406 BC, traditionally attributed to Moses
Moses' final speeches to Israel, reviewing the Law and urging obedience as they prepare to enter Canaan. It ends with Moses' death.
 
Joshua
ca 1380 BC
Details Israel's conquest of Canaan under Joshua's leadership and the division of the land among the twelve tribes.
 
Judges
ca 1050-1040 BC
Recounts the cycles of apostasy, oppression, repentance, and deliverance during the time of the judges, with figures like Deborah, Gideon, and Samson.
 
Ruth
1050 BC
A love story about Ruth, a Moabite widow, who shows loyalty to her Israelite mother-in-law, Naomi, and eventually marries Boaz, leading to the lineage of David.
 
1 Samuel
1021-1000 BC
Chronicles Israel's transition from a theocracy to a monarchy, focusing on the prophet Samuel, King Saul's reign, and David's anointing. Traditionally attributed to Samuel and the proiphets Gad and Nathan.
 
2 Samuel
1021-1000 BC
Covers the reign of King David, including his victories, personal failures (like his sin with Bathsheba), and family turmoil. Traditionally attributed to the prophets Gad and Nathan.
 
Psalms
1440-400 BC
A collection of 150 songs and prayers, covering themes of worship, lament, thanksgiving, and praise. Traditionally attributed to David and others, as indicated in the texts.
 
Proverbs
950-700 BC
A collection of wise sayings offering practical advice for living wisely and righteously, primarily attributed to Solomon.
 
Song of Solomon (Song of Songs)
965 BC
A poetic dialogue celebrating romantic love between a bride and groom, often interpreted as an allegory for God's love for His people. Attributed to Solomon.
 
Ecclesiastes
935 BC
A reflection on the meaning of life, with the author concluding that all is vanity without the fear of God. Traditionally attributed to Solomon.
 
Jonah
ca 780 BC
The story of Jonah's reluctant mission to the city of Nineveh, where his message leads the people to repentance. Jonah struggles with God's mercy toward Israel's enemies. Active during the reign of Jeroboam II.
 
Amos
750 BC
One of the earliest writing prophets during the reign of Jeroboam II in Israel. Preached against the social injustices and idolatry of Israel, warning of coming judgment.
 
Hosea
ca 715 BC
Uses the metaphor of an unfaithful wife to illustrate Israel's spiritual adultery and God's enduring love. Prophesied during the final days of the northern kingdom of Israel.
 
Isaiah
740-700 BC
A major prophet calling Judah to repentance, prophesying judgment and hope through the coming Messiah and the restoration of God's people, during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah.
 
Micah
ca 700 BC
Contemporary of Isaiah, warns both Israel and Judah of judgment for their sins but offers hope of restoration and the coming of a ruler from Bethlehem.
 
Nahum
650 BC
A prophecy of the fall of Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, as divine judgment for its cruelty and wickedness. Prophesied after Jonah.
 
Zephaniah
ca 625 BC
Warns of the coming "Day of the Lord", a day of judgment for Judah and the nations, but also promises restoration for the faithful. Active during the reign of Josiah.
 
Habakkuk
ca 610 BC
Just before the Babylonian invasion. A dialogue between the prophet and God, in which Habakkuk questions why God allows evil to go unpunished. God reveals that He will use Babylon to bring judgment.
 
Jeremiah
ca 585 BC
A prophet who warned Judah of the coming Babylonian exile, preached repentance, and foretold a future new covenant. Prophesied during the final years of Judah and the early years of exile.
 
Lamentations
586 BC
A series of laments, attributed to Jeremiah, mourning the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon, expressing sorrow, repentance, and hope in God's mercy.
 
Obadiah
ca 586 BC
A prophecy after the fall of Jerusalem, against Edom for their mistreatment of Israel during Jerusalem's fall, foretelling Edom's destruction.
 
Ezekiel
ca 570 BC
A prophet who ministered to the Jewish exiles in Babylon. He had visions of God's glory, the valley of dry bones, and prophesied future restoration.
 
1 Kings
560-540 BC
Begins with Solomon's reign, the building of the temple, and the division of the kingdom into Israel (north) and Judah (south).
 
2 Kings
560-540 BC
Continues the history of Israel and Judah, focusing on the decline of the two kingdoms, leading to the fall of Israel to Assyria and Judah to Babylon.
 
Daniel
ca 530 BC
A book of historical narrative and apocalyptic visions. Daniel, living in exile, interprets dreams and prophesies the rise and fall of world empires. Written during the Babylonian and Persian empires, focusing on God's sovereignty.
 
Haggai
ca 520 BC
Urges the returned exiles to rebuild the temple and renew their faithfulness to God after the Babylonian exile.
 
Zechariah
ca 518 BC
Encourages the rebuilding of the temple and delivers visions of the future, including prophecies of the Messiah and the ultimate restoration of God's people. Contemporary of Haggai.
 
Joel
ca 500-400 BC
Describes a locust plague and calls for repentance, prophesying the "Day of the Lord" and an outpouring of God's Spirit. Focuses on the coming Day of the Lord.
 
1 Chronicles
450-400 BC, traditionally attributed to Ezra A historical record focusing on genealogies and the reign of King David, emphasizing the priestly aspects and worship.
 
2 Chronicles
450-400 BC, traditionally attributed to Ezra
Continues from Solomon's reign to the Babylonian exile, focusing on temple worship, reforms, and the kings of Judah.
 
Ezra
450 BC
Chronicles the return of the Jewish exiles to Jerusalem and the rebuilding of the temple. Ezra, a priest, leads a spiritual renewal through teaching the Law.
 
Nehemiah
430 BC
Nehemiah, a cupbearer to the Persian king, returns to Jerusalem to rebuild its walls. He reforms the community spiritually and socially.
 
Esther
ca465 BC
A narrative set in Persia where Esther, a Jewish woman, becomes queen and saves her people from a plot to annihilate them.
 
Malachi
ca 420 BC
The last prophet of the Old Testament, calling Israel to repentance and faithfulness, warning of judgment, and promising a future messenger to prepare the way for the Lord.
 
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THE NEW TESTAMENT
 James
AD 45
Likely the oldest New Testament book. A practical letter written by James, the brother of Jesus, focusing on living out faith through good works, perseverance in trials, and the importance of righteous living and controlling the tongue.
 
Galatians
AD 48
Paul defends the gospel of justification by faith alone and not by works of the Law. He challenges the Galatians not to return to Jewish legalism and emphasizes freedom in Christ.
 
The Gospel of Mark
AD 40-50
Likely the first Gospel, based on Peter's testimony. The shortest of the four Gospels, it presents a fast-paced narrative of Jesus' ministry, emphasizing His miracles, teaching, death, and resurrection.
 
1 Thessalonians
AD 51
Paul encourages the believers in Thessalonica to remain steadfast in their faith despite persecution and offers teachings on the return of Christ (the Second Coming).
 
2 Thessalonians
AD 51
Paul addresses confusion about the timing of the Second Coming, urging the Thessalonians to stand firm and not to be deceived by false claims that Christ has already returned.
 
1 Corinthians
AD 54/55
Paul addresses divisions, moral issues, and doctrinal confusion in the Corinthian church, offering teaching on spiritual gifts, love, the resurrection, and orderly worship.
 
The Gospel of Matthew
AD 54-55
Written to a Jewish audience, showing Jesus as the Messiah. Focuses on Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy and presents Him as the long-awaited Messiah and King. It emphasizes His teaching, especially in the Sermon on the Mount.
 
2 Corinthians
AD 56
Paul defends his apostleship, offers comfort to the afflicted, encourages generosity, and explains the nature of Christian ministry.
 
Romans
AD 57
Paul's theological masterpiece. A comprehensive theological letter in which Paul explains humanity's need for salvation, justification by faith, the role of the Law, and the new life in Christ. It also deals with issues of Jewish and Gentile believers in the church.
 
The Gospel of Luke
AD 60-62
A detailed account of Jesus' life, ministry, death, and resurrection, written for a Gentile audience, emphasizing His compassion for the marginalized and His role as the Savior of all people, both Jews and Gentiles.
 
Ephesians
AD 61
Paul explains the spiritual blessings believers have in Christ, unity in the church, and offers practical instructions for Christian living, especially in relationships.
 
Philippians
AD 61
A letter written from prison, expressing Paul's gratitude to the church in Philippi, encouraging them to rejoice in all circumstances, and emphasizing the humility of Christ.
 
Colossians
AD 61
Paul warns against false teachings that threaten to diminish the sufficiency and supremacy of Christ. He emphasizes Christ's divine nature and the believers' complete salvation in Him.
 
Philemon
AD 61
A personal letter to Philemon, urging him to receive back his runaway slave, Onesimus, not as a slave but as a brother in Christ.
 
1 Peter
AD 60-62
Peter encourages Christians facing persecution to stand firm in their faith, live holy lives, and find hope in the living hope of Christ's resurrection.
 
1 Timothy
AD 62-63
Written to Timothy, Paul gives instructions on church leadership, sound doctrine, and godly living, emphasizing the qualities of church elders and deacons.
 
Titus
AD 62/63
Paul advises Titus on how to organize and lead the churches in Crete, emphasizing sound teaching, good works, and the qualifications for church leaders.
 
Acts
AD 62-64
Luke's sequel, detailing the history of the early church, the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, the spread of the gospel through the apostles, and Paul's missionary journeys. Ends with Paul in house arrest in Rome.
 
2 Peter
AD 63-64
Peter warns against false teachers, emphasizes the certainty of Christ's return, and urges believers to grow in grace and knowledge.
 
2 Timothy
AD 63-65
Paul's final letter before his death, written to encourage Timothy to remain faithful in the face of suffering and false teaching. Paul reflects on his life and ministry, and gives a personal charge to continue preaching the gospel.
 
Hebrews
AD 60-68
A letter to Jewish Christians emphasizing the superiority of Christ over the old covenant, Moses, and the Levitical priesthood, encouraging perseverance in faith despite persecution. Author unknown.
 
Jude
AD 66
A short letter warning against false teachers who have infiltrated the church and urging believers to contend for the faith and persevere. Written by Jude, the brother of Jesus.
 
The Gospel Of John
AD 80-90
The last Gospel written, by the apostle John, focusing on the divine nature of Jesus and His identity as the Son of God. It includes many unique narratives and discourses, emphasising belief in Jesus as the way to eternal life.
 
1 John
AD 95
A letter emphasizing love, obedience, and the importance of true doctrine, especially concerning the identity of Jesus Christ and the nature of salvation. Written by the apostle John.
 
2 John
AD 95
Written by the apostle John. A brief letter warning against false teachers and encouraging believers to walk in truth and love.
 
3 John
AD 95
A personal letter from the apostle John to Gaius, commending him for his hospitality to traveling missionaries and warning against the behavior of a disruptive church leader, Diotrephes.
 
Revelation
AD 95
The final book of the Bible. A prophetic vision given to the apostle John while exiled on the island of Patmos. It reveals the final victory of Christ over evil, the judgment of the wicked, and the eternal kingdom of God. It is filled with symbolic imagery of the end times and the return of Christ.
 
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HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH BIBLE TRANSLATIONS

TRANSLATION DATE
COMPLETED		 SOURCE TEXTS NOTABLE FEATURES
Geneva Bible 1560 Old Testament: Masoretic Hebrew text
New Testament: Textus Receptus (Greek) 		Produced by English Protestants exiled in Geneva during the reign of Queen Mary I.
The first English Bible translated directly from Hebrew and Greek texts.
Popular among English Protestants, including the Pilgrims and Puritans.
Notable for its extensive marginal notes that supported Reformed theology and were critical of the Church of England.
First English Bible to use numbered verses and italics for added words in translation.
Popular among English-speaking Protestants for nearly a century before the King James Version overtook it.
Bishop's Bible 1568 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text
New Testament: Textus Receptus 		Commissioned by the Church of England to counter the influence of the Geneva Bible.
Authorized for use in Anglican worship but not widely accepted by the public.
Lacked the Calvinist commentary found in the Geneva Bible.
Served as one of the base texts for the King James Version.
Douay-Rheims Bible 1610 Old Testament: Latin Vulgate
New Testament: Latin Vulgate 		The first complete English Catholic Bible.
Translated from the Latin Vulgate by English Catholic scholars in exile in Douay (Old Testament) and Rheims (New Testament).
Contained annotations supporting Catholic doctrine.
Predecessor to the later revisions that led to the Challoner Revision (1752).
King James Version (KJV) 1611 Old Testament: Masoretic Hebrew text
New Testament: Textus Receptus (Greek)		 Authorized by King James I of England, it became the most enduring English translation.
Aimed to be a politically neutral and ecclesiastically accepted translation, and unify the Church of England: free of the Geneva Bible's controversial annotations.
Distinguished by its majestic, poetic language, it remains one of the most widely read Bible translations.
Revised several times, with the 1769 edition being the most commonly used version today.
Revised Version (RV) 1885 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text (with some influence from Septuagint)
New Testament: Westcott and Hort's Greek Text (more critical edition than Textus Receptus) 		First major revision of the King James Version since 1611.
Aimed to reflect advances in textual criticism and to make the language more contemporary, though still very formal in style.
Aimed at incorporating more accurate renderings of the Hebrew and Greek texts.
Included British spellings and language, giving it less popularity in America.
American Standard Version (ASV) 1901 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text
New Testament: Westcott and Hort's Greek Text 		American edition of the Revised Version.
Popular in academic and conservative circles, but less so for public reading due to its formality.
Preferred by many for its literalness and closer adherence to the Hebrew and Greek texts.
Significant influence on later American translations, such as the NASB and RSV.
Revised Standard Version (RSV) 1952 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text (with some influence from Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint)
New Testament: Updated critical Greek texts 		A revision of the ASV, it modernized the language of the Bible while maintaining a high degree of literalness.
Became popular among mainline Protestant churches.
Sometimes controversial for its handling of certain passages, such as translating saiah 7:14's "virgin" as "young woman".
New American Standard Bible (NASB) 1971 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text (with use of Dead Sea Scrolls)
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		Extremely literal translation, known for its strict adherence to formal equivalence (word-for-word translation).
Favored by scholars and conservative Christian groups for study purposes.
Updated in 1995 and again in 2020 to reflect advances in biblical scholarship and more natural English.
New International Version (NIV) 1978
Revised 2011		 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text (with consultation of Dead Sea Scrolls and Septuagint)
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		A dynamic equivalence translation, aiming for a balance between accuracy and readability.
Emphasized dynamic equivalence, making it easier to understand without sacrificing essential meanings.
Written in modern, accessible English, making it very popular for public and private reading.
Updated in 1984, 2011 to reflect changing language usage and improved scholarship.
Widely used by evangelicals and non-denominational Christians.
Became the best-selling modern English translation of the Bible.
New King James Version (NKJV) 1982 Old Testament: Masoretic Hebrew Text
New Testament: Textus Receptus (same as KJV). 		A modern update of the KJV, preserving much of its structure and literary style.
Replaces archaic words while maintaining a formal equivalence approach.
Popular among those who appreciate the KJV tradition but seek more comprehensible language.
New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) 1989 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		Update of the RSV, with an emphasis on gender-inclusive language. Committed to gender-accuracy, gender-inclusivity, and gender-clarity.
Widely accepted by mainline Protestant denominations, Roman Catholics, and scholars.
Used in many seminaries and by various denominations for liturgy and scholarship.
New Living Translation (NLT) 1996
Revised 2004		 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		Dynamic equivalence or thought-for-thought translation, not strictly word-for-word.
Readability: designed for easy comprehension, making it accessible for a broad audience.
Clarity in modern language: uses contemporary, everyday English that reflects how people communicate today.
Scholarly accuracy, ensuring fidelity to the original texts.
Smooth flow and storytelling quality: a flowing narrative style, making it especially suitable for public reading and personal devotional study.
World English Bible (WEB) 2000 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text
New Testament: Textus Receptus (Greek) 		A public domain update of the ASV with modernized language and formatting
English Standard Version (ESV) 2001 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		Essentially a revision of the RSV, it aimed to provide a literal, word-for-word translation while maintaining readability.
Favored by conservative evangelicals for its balance between accuracy and readability.
Retains traditional theological language, such as "virgin" in Isaiah 7:14.
The Message 2002 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		A paraphrase translation by Eugene Peterson intended for devotional reading rather than formal study.
Very modern, conversational language, focusing on making the text accessible to contemporary readers.
Less emphasis on literal translation; more on conveying the thought and emotion of the original text.
New English Translation (NET) 2005 Old Testament: Masoretic Text
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek Text 		Distributed for free online.
Notable for its extensive translation notes (60,000+), making it a good study Bible.
Balances accuracy with modern language, aiming to clarify difficult passages.
Used widely in digital contexts and for study purposes.
Common English Bible (CEB) 2011 Old Testament: Masoretic Text
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek Text 		Aimed to be accessible, readable, and relevant for a wide audience.
Focuses on contemporary, easy-to-understand language without sacrificing accuracy.
Emphasized by mainline Protestant denominations and used in diverse worship settings.
Committed to gender-accuracy, gender-inclusivity, and gender-clarity.
Modern English Version (MEV) 2014 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text
New Testament: Textus Receptus 		An update of the KJV aimed at maintaining its traditional tone while modernizing the language.
Christian Standard Bible (CSB) 2017 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text, Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint
New Testament: Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament 		A revision of the Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB).
Uses an "optimal equivalence" approach, balancing literal accuracy with readability.
Popular among evangelical groups as a clear, accessible translation.
Simplified from the HCSB's previous translation decisions, such as removing the term "Yahweh" in favor of "Lord."
Legacy Standard Bible (LSB) 2021 Old Testament: Hebrew Masoretic Text
New Testament: Greek Text, Textus Receptus-based 		A revision of the New American Standard Bible (NASB) by a group of conservative scholars.
Emphasizes word-for-word accuracy with formal equivalence.
Particularly well-received by conservative Christians seeking a precise translation.
Retains the divine name "Yahweh" in the Old Testament rather than using "LORD."

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MANUSCRIPT EVIDENCE FOR THE NEW TESTAMENT

AVAILABLE MANUSCRIPTS
SUBJECT NUMBER OF MANUSCRIPTS TIME BETWEEN ORIGINAL AND EARLIEST COPY
NT Greek: 5,700
Total: More than 24,000		 Earliest: within one generation
(See start of Study Unit 1)
Whole books: Within 100 years
Most of NT within 200 years
Entire New Testament: within 250 years
Aristotle 49 1,450 years
Plato 7 1,300 years
Homer's Illiad 643 500 years

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THE STORY OF GOD AND HUMANITY


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TESTAMENT VS COVENANT

TESTAMENT VS COVENANT
ELEMENT TESTAMENT (WILL) COVENANT
Parties Involved One party (the testator) unilaterally sets terms for others after their death. At least two parties mutually agree to terms.
Nature of Agreement A directive for future distribution of testator's assets and responsibilities. A binding agreement that requires active participation from both parties.
Enforceability Becomes effective only after the testator's death. Becomes effective immediately upon agreement.
Obligations Beneficiaries and executors must follow the will's terms.
The testator has no further obligations once the will is executed.		 Both parties have ongoing responsibilities and must uphold their respective commitments.
Legal Standing Governed by probate law and subject to legal validation. Can be legally binding in various contexts (contract law, religious law, etc.).
Modifiability Can be modified or revoked only by the testator during their lifetime. Usually requires mutual agreement to amend, depending on the nature of the covenant.
Termination / Implementation Concludes upon execution after the testator's death. Can be perpetual, time-limited, or nullified if breached.

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21-DAY BIBLE READING PROGRAM FOR NEW BELIEVERS

DAY READING
Day 1: Mark 1:1-13 The beginning of the gospel ("good news") narrative.
Day 2:Luke 4:1-15 Jesus is tempted by the devil, and thereafter starts His ministry.
Day 3: Luke 5:1-11 Jesus calls His first disciples
Day 4: John 4:1-30 Jesus ministers to a Samaritan woman, and she brings her whole village to listen to Him.
Day 5: Acts 17:16-34 The apostle Paul explains the gospel to Greek people in Athens.
Day 6: Acts 4:21-31 The apostles Peter and John are arrested for testifying about Jesus, threatened, and released.
They go to the other disciples and pray to God about this persecution, asking for boldness to keep on preaching
Day 7: Acts 21:1-14 The apostle Paul is on a journey to Jerusalem, even though it seems trouble is awaiting him.
Day 8: Acts 18:1-11 Before going to Jesrusalem Paul ministers in the city of Corinth, and is encouraged in a vision.
Day 9: Luke 15:11-24 Jesus tells a parable about a foolish son and how his father welcomes him back.
The story is an illustration of how God is ready to take us back and bless us.
Day 10: Mark 7:14-23 Jesus explains to people that evil and sin comes from the inside of a person.
Day 11: Matthew 19:1-12 The Pharisees try to trap Jesus with a question about marriage,
but he outsmarts them and uses it as an occasion to teach His disciples.
Day 12: Acts 5: 1-11 This tells about a husband and wife who tried to lie to the church,
and therefor to God, to try and impress everyone.
Day 13: 1 Samuel 24: 1-22 Tells about David and Saul, and how David refuses to sin against God
when he refuses to kill Saul, who was trying to catch and kill him.
Day 14: Matthew 5:43-48 Jesus teaches His followers to love their enemies instead of hating them.
(Like David did in the previous reading.)
Day 15: Luke 18:9-14 Jesus teaches His followers to be humble in their prayers, not try to impress God.
Day 16: Matthew 26:39-42 Jesus prays to His Father the night before his death, that the Father's will should be done.
Day 17: Matthew 18:21-35 Jesus teaches His disciples about forgiveness.
Day 18:Luke 23:33-46 Jesus prays for forgiveness for those who crucify Him, and dies.
Day 19: Matthew 28:1-10 Jesus rises from the dead, and appear to some of his followers.
Day 20: Matthew 28: 16-20 Jesus commands His disciples to make disciples of all people, and promises that He will always be with them.
Day 21: Acts 1:7-11 Jesus promise his disciples that they will receive power to be His witnesses when the Holy Spirit comes on them (Acts 2).
He ascends to heaven, and two angels tell the disciples that He will return again.

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